MASTER 
NEGA  TIVE 

NO.  92-80602 


MICROFILMED  1992 
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AUTHOR: 


ALLEN,  JOSEPH 
HE 


'""X    "V  *"#"*     ft 


Jrl 


ALLEN  AND 


\i- 


OUGH'S 


p 


CE: 


BOSTON 


DA  TE : 


1896 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 
PRESERVATION  DEPARTMENT 

BIBLIOGRAPHTrMICROFnRMTAPr^pT 


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877.6 
rAl5 


Allen,  Joseph  Henry,  1820-1898. 

All^n.and  Greenough's  shorter  Latin  grammar  for 
schools  and  academies,  condensed  and  rev.  by  James 
Bradstreet  Greenough,  assisted  by  Albert  A.  Howard. 
Boston  and  London,  Ginn  &l  company,  1896. 

xi,  371  p.    19"-. 


1.  Latin  language — Grammar — l^JTO-     ,  i.  Greenough,  James  Brad- 

street,  1833-\c\i\  joint  author,    ii.  jrlpward,  Albert  Andrew. 


Restrictions  on  Use: 


Library  of  Congress 
©1896:  53077 


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SHORTER 


Latin   Grammar 


FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  ACADEMIES 


Contended  anO  'KevieeD 

BY 

JAMES    BRADSTREET    GREENOUGH 

ASSISTED   BY 

ALBERT   A.  HOWARD 


Boston,  U.S.A.,  and  London 
GINN   &   COMPANY,    PUBLISHERS 

Cie  2[t!)en8ettm  |)te00 
1896 


P  R  E  !■  A  C  E 


-  ♦•IXI'^- 


COPYRIGHT,     1896 

By  GINN  &   COMPANY 


ALL   RIGHTS    RESERVED 


The  present  editors  hold  as  the  result  of  their  experience, 
that  a  book  designed  to  instruct  in  the  principles  of  Latin 
construction,  intended  for  the  use  of  pupils  and  young  teach- 
ers, ought  to  contain  practically  the  whole  grammar  of  the 
language.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  teachers,  because 
the  book  from  which  one  teaches  is  very  likely  to  limit 
one's  own  acquisitions.  They  are,  however,  aware  that  a  more 
compendious  book  may  be  sufficient  with  some  teachers,  and 
under  certain  conditions  even  superior.  They  have,  therefore, 
endeavored  to  abbreviate  their  complete  work  by  omitting 
from  it  such  portions  as  could  not  give  appreciable  informa- 
tion to  the  students  in  preparatory  schools.  This  has  been 
done  by  noting  all  the  references  in  the  books  used  in  such 
schools,  and  saving  these  along  with  all  the  general  principles 
under  which  they  came.  It  is  hoped  that  by  this  method 
nothing  has  been  omitted  which  was  essential,  and  nothing 
retained  which  might  not  at  some  time  answer  a  question 
raised  even  among  preparatory  pupils.  In  order  to  facilitate 
the  use  of  the  two  books  side  by  side,  and  the  later  substitu- 
tion of  the  larger  work,  the  original  notation  of  sections  and 
subsections  has  been  carefully  retained. 

In  the  treatment  of  the  subject,  with  the  exception  of  all 
general  linguistic  lore,  the  lines  of  the  other  work  have  been 
pursued.  For  such  lore  the  student  and  teacher  are  referred 
to  the  larger  grammar. 

PAZD61 


4614 


IV 


PREFACE. 


if 
li 


;! 


But  in  regard  to  hidden  quantities,  a  subject  which  has  only 
lately  begun  to  be  studied,  and  whose  uncertainties  ought  not 
to  be  allowed  to  trouble  the  beginner,  the  editors  have  pur- 
sued an  even  more  conservative  course  than  before,  marking 
only  such  vowels  long  as  could,  in  their  opinion,  be  reason- 
ably proved  to  be  so,  and  leaving  as  presumably  siiort  all 
others,  even  those  which  many  persons,  and  even  the  editors 
themselves,  were  inclined  to  think  long. 

Camijridc.k,  September  i,  1896. 


CONTENTS. 


INTKODUCTION  :  Elementary  Definitions 


PART  I.  — ETYMOLOGY. 

/.    Letters  and  Sounds  . 
ALPHABET  :  Classification  ;  Phonetic  Variations 
Pronunciation;  Quantity  and  Accent 


2.    Words  and  their  Forms 
iNKLECrioN  :  Root  and  Stem 

The  Parts  of  Speech 
Gender,  Number,  and  Case 


3.    Dec/ens/on  of  Nouns 


General  Rules  of  Declension  . 
First  Declension 
•Second  Declension 
Third  Declension 


Fourth  Declension 
Fifth  Declension     . 
Defective  and  Variable  Nouns 
Proper  Names 


Mute  Stems    . 
Liquid  Stems 
Vowel  Stems 
Irregular  Nouns 
Greek  Forms 
Rules  of  (Jender 


PAGBS 

'~3 


4-1 1 

4-8 
9-1  i 


11-14 

II 

12 

12-14 

'4-34 

M 
I5»  '6 
17-19 

20 

21 
22-26 

26 

27 

28 

29 

33.34 


VI 


COX7'EX7'S. 


COA'JEATS. 


VII 


"1 


ill 
% 

'it 

lii 


J 


lij 


,  PACKS 

4.    Adjectives       ....  34-49 

First  and  Second  Declension.s 34-3^ 

Third  Declei.sion 36-42 

Comparison     ...........  42-45 

Numerals 46-49 


5.    Pronouns 

rcrsonal,  Reflexive,  Possessivi;,  Demonstrative 
Relative,  Interrogative,  Indefinite  . 
Correlatives  (Pronouns  and  Adverbs) 


50-58 

50-51 

5J-57 

58 


6.    Verbs      .....  59-  95 

Inflection 59,    60 

Signification  :  Voice,  Mood,  Tense 60-  64 

Personal  Endings 64 

Forms:  Verb-Endings 64-  06 

The  Verb  Sum 06-68 

The  Three  Stems 6S 

Regular  Verb:  The  Four  Conjugations           .        .        .         .  OS,    69 

Formation  of  the  Three  Stems  .         .         .         .  69,    70 

Synopsis  of  the  Verb 70,    71 

Special  Forms     .......  71 

First  Conjugation 72-75 

Periphrastic  Conjugations 74 

Second  Conjugation 76,    77 

Third  Conjugation 78-  81 

Fourth  Conjugation 81,    82 

Deponent  Verbs ^^-  85 

Irregular  Verbs 85-  90 

Defective  Verbs ^o_  03 

Impersonal  Verbs yj_  cj- 

7.   Particles 96-104 

Adverbs cyG-  99 

Prepositions on 

Conjunctions 100-104 

Interjections   ...........  104 


\      Genitive 


8.    Formation  of  Words 
Roots  and  Stems 

Suffixes:  Primary;  Significant  Endings  . 
Derivation  of  Nouns  and  Adjectives 
Derivation  of  Verbs 
Compound  Words  .         . 


PART   II.  -^SYNTAX. 


Introductory  Note 


Pronouns: 


1.    The  Sentence 

Definitions:  Subject  and  Predicate;   Modification 
Agreement  :  the  Four  Concords 
Nouns:  Appo.sition;   I'redicate  Agreement 
Adjectives:  Rules  of  Agreement 

Special  Uses 

*         •         .         . 

Personal  and  Demonstrative 

Reflexive 

•         •         •         .         . 

I'ossessive  . 

•         •         •         •         . 

Relative  ... 

Indefinite    . 

■ 

Alius  and  Alter 
Verhs:  Subject,  Incomplete  Sentences 
PARTiCLi.:s:  Adverbs.  Conjunctions.  Negatives  .    ' 
Questions        .         .  o  . 


2.    Construction  of  Cases 
With  Nouns 

Possessive 

*  • 

Material,  Quality      . 

Partitive 

Objective  . 
With  Adjectives 
With  Verbs 


PAGES 
104-123 

104 
105,  106 

.  I 06-1 17 
II8-I2I 

.  121-123 


124 


125-161 
I25-I3I 

'31-133 

'33-135 

'35-138 
138-140 

'41-143 
'43.  144 
145-149 
'49,  150 
«5o»  »5' 
151-154 

'54-157 
i58-'6i 


161-217 

161-166 
162-163 

164 
164-166 

166 
166,  167 
168-171 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


Genitive:  With  Verbs:  Remembering  and  Forgetting     . 

Accusing,  etc. 

Feeling 

Interest  and  Refert ;  other  Verbs 
Peculiar  Genitives  :  Exclamatory,  etc. 
Dative  :  Indirect  Object  with  Transitives     . 
Indirect  Object  with  Intransitives 

With  Compounds 

Of  Possession  ;  of  Agency  .... 

Purpose  or  End ;  Dative  ^vith  Adjectives 

Reference  ;  Ethical 

Accusative  :  Direct  Object 

Cognate  Accusative;  Two  Accusatives 
Idiomatic  and  Special  Uses     . 


Vocative 
Ablative 


its  Several  Uses 

Of  Separation  and  Privation   .         .         . 

Source,  Material,  Cause  .... 

Agent,  of  Comparison         .... 
Manner,  Means,  Instrument,  Accompaniment 
Difference,  Quality,  Price,  Specification      . 

Locative:  Special  Uses 

Absolute 

Time  and  Place       .... 

Use  of  Prepositions 


5.    Syntax  of  the  Verb 

Moods:  Indicative      ... 

Subjunctive :  General  Use 
"  Hortatory 

"  Optative 

"  Deliberative 

Imperative 
Infinitive 
Tenses  :  Of  Incomplete  Action 
Present  . 
Imperfect  . 
Future    . 
Of  Completed  Action 
Perfect    . 
Pluperfect  . 


PAGES 

i68 

169 

170 

.  170, 171 

171.172 
•  172-174 

174-177 
.  178,179 

180, 181 
.  181-183 

183-185 
.  185-187 

187-191 

191,  192 

193 
193.194 
194,  195 

195-198 
198-200 
200-202 
202-205 
205,  206 
206-208 
208-214 
214-217 

218-255 

218 

219 

220 

221 

222 

222-224 

225-230 

230 

230-232 

232-234 

234 

234 

234-236 

236 


CONTENTS. 


k\ 


/ 


Future  Perfect 
Epistolary  Tenses 
Of  the  Subjunctive 
Sequence  of  Tenses 
Of  the  Infinitive  . 
Participles  :      .        .        . 

Distinctions  of  Tense 
Adjective  Use 
Predicate  Use     . 
Future  Participle     . 
Gerundive 

Gerund  and  Gerundive 

Supines  .         .        .         _ 


4.     Conditional  Sentences 


»  Protasis  and  Apodosis 
Classification  of  Forms 
*  Simple  Conditions  . 
>J^uture  Conditions 
-Conditions  Contrary  to  Fact 
General  Conditions     . 
"<^ondition  Disguised 
'Condition  Omitted 
Potential  Subjuncrive 
Subjunctive  of  Modesty 
Verbs  of  Necessity 
Complex  Conditions   . 
Particles  of  Comparison 
Concessive  Clauses 
Proviso    .         .         .         , 
Use  of  Si  and  its  Compounds 


5.     Dependent  Constructions 


Relative  Clauses: 


Conditional  Relative  Clauses 
Clauses  of  Purpose     . 
Clauses  of  Result  . 
Clauses  of  Characteristic   . 
Causal  Clauses 


IX 

PAGES 
•  236,237 

237 

237 

237-242 

•  242,243 

244-250 

.  244,  245 

246 

■  247-249 

249 

251-254 

254 

256-271 

256 

257-259 

259 
260,  261 

262 

263 

264 

265 

265 

266 

266 

267 

267 

268 

269 

270 


271-304 

271-284 
271 

272-275 

275-277 
277-279 

279 


»• .' 


X  CONTENTS. 

Relative  Clauses  :  Relations  of  Time 

Postquam,  etc. 

Cum  Temporal 

Cum  Causal    . 

Antequam,  Priusquam 

Dum,  Donee,  and  Quoad 
Substantive  Clauses: 

'  "  •  • 

Infinitive  Clauses     . 

Clauses  of  Purpose 

Clauses  of  Result     . 

Clauses  with  Quod 

Indirect  Questions  . 
Indirect  Discourse  : 

Formal  Indirect  Discourse 
Subordinate  Clauses 
^^Tenses  in  Indirect  Discourse 
.    ^   ^Conditions,  Questions,  Commands 
Informal  Indirect  Discourse 
Integral  Clauses     . 
Important  Rules  of  Syntax  .... 


(General  Rule  . 
Special  Rules      . 
Structure  of  the  Period 


S.     Arrangement 


PART    III. -PROSODY. 


/. 


General  Rules  of  Quantity 
Quantity  of  Final  Syllables 
Quantity  of  Penultimates 


Measures  of  Rhythm  :  Feet' 
The  Musical  Accent    . 


Quantity 


Rhythm 


PAGES 

280    284 

281 

281 

282 

284 

285-295 

.     285-287 

287-290 

•  -9«>-293 

293 
294,  295 

295-304 
296 
297 

298,  299 

299-303 
303 
304 

305-311 


312-316 


312 
314 

315 


318,319 
320 


322-324 
322 
323 


# 


J 


I 


I, 


/' 


\. 


v 


CONTENTS. 


3.     Versification 

The  Verse 

Dactylic  Verse  :  Hexameter 

Elegiac  Stanza    . 

Miscellaneous  :  Reckoning  of  Time   . 

Measures  of  Value 
Glossary  of  Terms     . 
Abbreviations 

Index  of  Words  and  Subjects 


XI 

PAGBS 
324-326 

•  324 

325 

•  326 

327,  328 

•  329 
332-335 

•  336 

337 


1^ 


,  -*    r  fc,  fc,      i 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


rt*- 


INTRODUCTION. 

ELEMENTARY  DEFINITIONS. 

1.    The  study  of  Grammar  includes  :    (i)  the  Forms  of 
Words  (Etymology);  (2)  the  Uses  of  Words,  or  the  ways 
of  connectmg  them  in  sentences  (Syntax);  (3)  the  Forms 
of  Verse  (Prosody). 

PARTS   OF  SPEECH. 

2.  Words  ^x^C Norms,  Adjectives,  Pronouns,  Verbs 
Partieiples,  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  or  Inter- 
jections.    These  are  called  Parts  of  Speech. 

Note.-  There  is  no  word  in  Latin  for  the  Articles  a,  an,  the. 

3.  A  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  person,  place,  or  thing : 
as,  C<Esar,  Rome,  house,  strength,  glory.  Names  of  persons 
and  places  are  Proper  Nouns  ;  the  others  are  Common 
Nouns. 

4.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  which  describes  a  noun : 
as,  a  brave  man,  a  green  tree. 

6.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  which  denotes  a  person,  place, 
or  thmg  without  naming  or  describing  it.     It  may  be  —  ' 

a.  Personal :  /,  w  (ist  person);  thou,  ye,  you  (2d  person);  he, 
she,  tt,  they  (3d  person).  ^ 

Note.  -There  is  in  Latin  no  personal  pronoun  of  the  3d  person,  but  a 
demonstrative  may  be  used  instead;  and  the  others  are  used  only  for 
emphasis,  bemg  commonly  given  in  the  verb-ending. 


f 

1 

I 


^^TmDUCT/OJV. 


flHB* 


Note  —  p  i^ntcn^  what? 

6.  A  Verb  is  '*""'  ''^'''"^^- 

■^^   A  Participle  is  an  .^-      • 
-'-conditio„'asserte;4t:r  ^""''^  ^-"'"^es  the 
8-   An  Adverb  is  a  w    ^  '  ^''  '^""^'''■^'  '^'''"^- 

as.    «<'«',    ^^;.^,    ^^^^ 

^-   A  Preposition  is  a  v..  ^ 

dependent  relation  with  otheT      T"^^''"^  ^  "oun  in  a 

--«.  /-.  ....^,  .W;'j^:,:^^^^  -  ^^^  san,e  sentence: 

■^'h  '°  define  and  to  To^r,""'  "'^''^'    ^'«''^'.  W    „         "^         " 

connect,  are  called  Adverb  air    "'^''■'^"■^"-.  ~  used 
'1-    Interjection.?   ,  ^""^Conjunctions. 

THE  SENTENCE. 

^2.  A  Sentence  is  p   f 

Assertion  p  n        •  ^^™   of  vvoMo 

-^  '^  is  'a  Jrl  r  "  ^-^^-atrn    or??'"'"^  - 
/^n'  or,l!  ^'>''  'i^'^liratorv  ,„,  Command; 


I 


<l 


J 


1 


7W£-  SENTENCE.  3 

13.  The  Subject  of  a  sentence  denotes  the  person  or 
thing  spoken  of:  it  may  be  (i)  a  Noun,  a  Pronoun,  or  a 
Phrase ;  or  (2)  it  may  be  given  in  the  ending  of  a  Verb. 

Note.  — This  latter  case  is  regular  in  Latin  :  as,  doce-o,  I  teach ;  doce-t, 
he  (or  she)  teaches;  doce-nt,  they  teach. 

14.  The  Predicate  is  that  which  is  spoken  of  the 
Subject.  It  may  be  a  Verb ;  and  it  must  contain  a  verb. 
Thus  a  whole  Latin  sentence  may  consist  of  a  verb  alone. 

Note.  —  If  the  Predicate  is  a  verb  alone  —  as,  "  the  sun  shines  "  —  this 
verb  is  called  Neuter,  or  Intransitive;  if  the  verb  requires  an  Object  — as, 
"  I  see  the  sun  "  —  it  is  called  Transitive.  A  noun  or  adjective  used  with  a 
neuter  verb  to  complete  the  statement  —  as,  "these  men  are  brave'' —  x% 
called  the  Complement. 

15.  The  Object  of  a  verb  denotes  the  person  or  thing 
affected  by  the  action  :  as,  I  wrote  the  letter. 

Note.  —  The  Object  may  be  direct  or  indirect:  in  the  sentence,  "  I 
wrote  you  a  letter,"  letter  is  the  Direct  object,  ^x^di  you  the  Indirect. 

16.  A  Phrase  is  a  group  of  words,  without  subject  or 
predicate  of  its  own,  which  may  be  used  as  an  adjective 
or  adverb  :  as,  "a  man  of  great  virtue''  (Adjective  Phrase); 
"I  will  come  within  three  days'"  (Adverbial  Phrase). 

17.  A  Clause  is  a  group  of  words,  with  subject  and 
predicate  of  its  own,  used  to  add  something  to  a  sentence, 
or  to  qualify  its  meaning :  as,  "  I  spoke  and  he  listened"; 
''when  he  had  heard,  he  went  away." 

Note.  —  A  sentence  so  modified  is  called  compound;  if  one  part  (as  in 
the  second  example)  depends  on  the  other,  it  is  called  complex. 

18.  A  noun,  pronoun,  adjective,  or  verb  is  said  to 
AGREE  with  another  word,  when  it  is  required  to  be  in 
the  same  gender,  number,  case,  or  perso7t.  A  verb  or 
preposition  is  said  to  govern  a  noun,  when  it  requires  a 
noun  in  connection  to  be  in  a  particular  Case. 


\ 


K 


I 


tETTEJiS  AND  SOUNDS. 


PART   FIRST.-ETYMOLOGY. 


[§§1, 


I. 


LETTERS  AND  SOUNDS. 


ALPHABET 
Classification  of  the  Letters 

'™— "■  ■^'  ■>*'.■.»«  »i  „";  ;t'4  *•  "'"• « 

2-  Consonants.  —  <j   p  b  o  rki 
">.  are  called  Mutes  (Explosive,   itr!'  *'  *'  "'  ^'  ''''°  *="  ^"^^ 
JHese  are  produced    ,  .""Z' ^  '"''  '°'""''>- 

Thef  °  ^''^'  "'  ''  "'  "■""  '""^^  Surds  (..«,,^,)  ■ 
These  are  without  vocal  tone.  ^'^'^''^^h 

Thes   are  accompanied  by  a  slight  vocai  tone. 
In  th     '    K  ""  "■'  '^^"^'^  ^^P'^ates. 

^7 '''  "-:'•  p-i'a^  was"e::r^u?de:t^j'r  ^'^  *'°"°-^ 

f;  »  and  n  are  called  Nasals  ""'^  '"  ^^«"- 

J  hese  are  pronounced  with  the  « 
-    .^;^  except  that  the  nas     p  t'Ts  T  "^  °^  '"^  °'^-^  -  " 
A  th,rd  nasal,  n  «y«fe,,„„„  ^f^ff  '^  ."Pened  instead  of  closed. 

--e  way  to  8.  existed  in  the  lanX  buT'h  d"""''""'""^  '"  *^ 

g"age,  but  had  no  separate  sign. 


3-S-] 


CLASSIFICATION  OF   THE  LETTERS. 


5 


3.  From  the  organs  of  speech  chiefly  used  in  the 
utterance  of  the  mutes  and  nasals  they  are  divided  into 
Labials  (pronounced  with  the  lips),  Palatals  (with  the 
palate),  and  Linguals  (with  the  tongue). 

Their  relations  are  seen  in  the  following  table  :  — 


SURD. 


SONANT. 


ASPIRATE. 


NASAL. 


Labial:         p  b         wanting         m 

Palatal:      c  (k),  q       g  ch  n  (as  in  ink) 

Lingual:     t  d  th  n  (as  in  rent). 

a.  Other  useful  special  classes  of  sounds  are  distinguished,  as,  

Liquids:  1,  m,  n,  r. 

Fricatives  (Spirants):  f.  ph,  th  (not  aspirate,  the  same  as  in  thin),  h,  s,  z. 

Sibilants:  s,  z. 

Double  Consonants :  x  (cs),  z  (ds). 

Semi-vowels :  i,  v  (see  §  4). 

b,  h  is  merely  a  breathing. 

4.  Semi- Vowels. — i  and  v  (u)  before  a  vowel  in  the 
same  syllable  are  consonants  and  have  the  sound  of  Eng- 
lish consonant  y  and  w  respectively.  (Cf.  i  and  u  in 
piniouy  unguent.)    They  are  sometimes  called  Sejui-Vowels . 

Note.  —  The  Latin  alphabet  had  no  separate  signs  for  the  semi- vowels ; 
but  used  i  for  both  vowel  and  consonant  i,  and  v  or  u  (without  distinction) 
for  both  vowel  and  consonant  v  (u).  The  character  j  was  unknown  in 
classical  times,  and  u  was  but  a  graphic  variation  of  v.  In  medieval  Latin 
j  and  V  came  to  be  used  to  indicate  the  consonant  sounds  of  i  and  v  (u), 
and  this  usage  is  often  followed  by  modern  editors  in  writing  small  letters. 
In  writing  capitals,  however,  the  forms  J  and  U  are  avoided.  Thus, 
iuuenis,  iuvenis,  or  juvenis,  —  but  ivvenis. 

In  this  book  vowel  and  consonant  i  are  both  represented  by  the  same 
character,  i ;  but  v  is  used  for  the  consonant,  u  for  the  vowel  sound  of  v 
(u).     Thus,  iustus,  vir,  iuvenis. 

5.  The  Romans  distinguished  Long  vowels  from  Short 
in  sound,  but  had  no  regular  means  to  express  the  differ- 
ence. This  difference  is  called  Quantity,  and  such  vowels 
are  said  to  be  long  or  short  by  nature. 


I 


.\ 


it 


6  LETTEI^s  AND  SOUNDS.  fjg  ^,,. 

short.     But  final  o  and  i  .r/       ,    .  ^'^  supposed  to  be 

paL^e)'  """'"  '^  ^"^'  ''^'^"^'^  °"^'"^">-  ^'-^  ^-  '"e  sonant 

this  tendency  it  would  ha^.h!  ^  P^serving  o,  when  but  for 

servos  (but  \.Ztl      ?„  ^Z  "'  "k"  "°''""  (""'  ^'^*-)' 
(for  equos,  later  equus)  ^""'  '^  """"«  ou,  as  in  ecus 

and^plltrcu  :f;r  '""  "°""  '''^^'^  ''  ^'^-■^  "^  -'"en 
f        u  cea  cu,  as,  ecus,  equi,  sequitur,  secuntur. 

Phonetic  Variations. 

8.   Variations  of  sound  are  of  two  classes-  — 

a.  Inherited  differences  nf  f^,-«,  •    .u 

/,    TTn.^      •  ,  ^^'^"^ '"  ^he  same  root  rsee  S  22^ 

o.   Unconscious  chanp-es  of  «rM,r.^o  ^       ,        ,        ^        ^      ^' 

the  language  itself  '''  ^'''^'"P^'^ '»  ^"""^^  of  time  in 

«•    Vowels  vary  between  long  and  short  of  fh  , 

i.   Vowels  vary  in  aua  itv  ^1         ll'^^''  "  ^'"'"■ 

-    Vowels  vary  betweel  i^H'^     "l  '  "'"^'''  P°"^"»'  -"^^^■ 

vowe,  or  diphthong  of  I:., errZ     "'  ""  ""^'"^  ^"-^  ^  '^^ 

''•    Liquids  are^ransDoseH  Vr         ^'  '""">'"''  "•^estus,  sad 
'"e  vowel :  as.  ^^^.:::;::t; :;::^  --  -ange  Of 

con?o„a';!r"""  ^'^"^^^  °^™^   -  "-h  vowels  and 
^^"^Zt  :;^  t^T:'  are  weakened:  as,  faotus.  „,ade,  co„- 

.  *.  TWO  vow^eiri;  X  r?"'  n"^  "'^^^^• 


§§  11.12] 


PHONETIC    VARIATIONS. 


V 


c.  Vowels  are  often  lost  between  two  consonants  {syncope) :  as, 
audacter  for  audaciter. 

^.  Vowels  are  inserted  between  two  consonants  in  the  effort  to 
pronounce  a  difficult  combination  of  sounds  (cf.  sailors'  helhwi  for 
hehn) :  as,  Hercules  for  Hercles,  drachuma  for  drachma. 

\\,  a.  Consonants  are  substituted  one  for  another.  Thus :  r  for 
8  between  two  vowels  or  before  m  or  n  :  as,  eram  (root  es),  generis 
(for  tsenesis,  from  genus),  maereo  (cf.  maestus). 

b.  Consonants  are  omitted  :  as,  examen  (exagmen),  caementum 
(caed-mentum),  autumnus  (auctumnus,  root  AUG),pergo  (per-rego). 

Especially  h  :  as,  debeo  (de-habeo).  And  consonant  i  and  v  :  as, 
conicio  (con-iacio),  prorsus  (pro-vorsus). 

c.  Consonants  are  unconsciously  inserted  in  passing  from  one 
sound  to  another  :  as,  sumo,  /  take,  sumpsi,  /  took. 

d.  Consonants  and  vowels  are  unconsciously  changed  {dtsswitla- 
tion)  to  avoid  a  repetition  of  the  same  sound  in  two  successive 
syllables :  parilia  (for  palilia,  from  Pales),  meridies  (for  medidies). 

e.  A   consonant   is  changed  by  the  influence  of  a  neighbormg 

sound,—  .    .,  ^-    \ 

1.  Into  the  same  sound  as  the  neighbor  {complete  asstmtlattony. 

as,  cessi  (ced-si),  summus  (sup-mus),  sella  (sed-la). 

2.  Into  a  sound  of  the  same  organ  or  the  same  quality  (or  both) 
as  the  neighbor  {partial  assimilation)  (see  table  of  mutes,  §  3) : 
as,  contero  (com-tero,  labial  to  lingual),  scriptus  (scrib-tus,  sonant 
to  surd),  segmentum  (tsecmentum,  surd  to  sonant),  impero  (in-pero, 
lingual  to  labial). 

12.  Variations  of  Spelling  occur  in  manuscripts  and 
inscriptions,  and  especially  in  modern  editions.  Most 
are  provided  for  in  Vocabularies. 

a.  The  letters  and  sounds  of  ci  and  ti  are  interchanged  before  a 
vowel :  nuntio  (nuncio),  contio  (concio),  condicio  (conditio). 

b.  Several  words  are  written  sometimes  with  and  sometimes 
without  an  initial  h  :  as,  harena  (arena),  ems  (hems),  umerus 
(humerus),  umor  (humor). 

c.  In  later  Latin,  e,  ae,  and  oe  became  alike  in  sound  (like  a  in 
fate),  and  are  often  confounded  in  writing  :  as,  faenus  (fenus,foenus). 

d.  Other  words  variously  spelled  are  :  adulescens,  adolescens ; 
aheneus,  aeneus ;  anulus,  annulus. 


8 


LETTERS  AND  SOUNDS. 


[§§  13-15- 


§§16,17.] 


SOUNDS   OF   THE  LETTERS. 


\ 


Combinations. 

13.   Two  words  are  often  united  in  writing,  and  some- 
times m  sound.     Thus,  — 

connected .  as  in  etemm,  unusquisque,  lamdudum,  iamdiS  siouls 

penc^vunst,  quallst  (qualis  est)  (,ike  M.^V^t)  '  ' 

<r.   Similar  contractions  are  found  in  vin'  CviBn^-i   1^-  .  /    - 
BU  (si  Vis),  sodes  (si  audes),  sultia  (srjr  ^s:=T„  ^^'l 
don't,  won't  {wol  not).  '''     ^°  '"  E"g''sh, 

Syllables. 

14.   In  Latin  every  word  has  as  many  syllables  as  it 
has  vowels  or  diphthongs.  "y^aoies  as  it 

pronounced  with  the  tr.  ""  '"'°  ™"^'^  ■""='  ^^  -'«»  -^ 

b.   This  rule  is  sometimes  improperly  extendeH  tn  H„  ki  j 
sonants,  or  any  combination  of  consonant  wM,h  k  '°"- 

begin  a  word:  as,  .o-spes,  ...^„,:ri;  ' Ir  "^  "'^"^  " 
oMIt!:.  ^°""'°""'^'  '"^  •'-'^  ^•'-"^  ''^  -Parated':   as,  ab.st. 

Kindred  Forms. 

^5.    In  English  words  derived  from  the  T  nfin   .u        •  . 
are  retained  (as  a.nbition  from  aTbTtiS)      But'         "^'"'  ^'""^- 
words  which  are  cognate  with  thTS'  the  or"- "f"   "^"^"^^ 
represented  in  the  \y«^  lo  '"^/-^tm,   the  origmal  sounds  are 

regularly  cor::srond    as,  1"'"'"  '^  ""''''  ""'^'^^  '«'-  which 


t 

d 
P 


BNGLISH. 

th:  «, '/i-'^y  tres,  Mr..,  tenuis,  M/„. 

r .  duo,  two;  dens,  /■«„//,,  sedeo,  «/. 

"  =  V^^^r,  father  J  pullu?,/.^/,  paucf,/.^,. 


I 


1^ 


»    - 


1 


Sounds  of  the  Letters. 

Note.  —  The  pronunciation  of  Latin  is  different  in  different  countries. 
In  America,  it  usually  follows  what  may  be  called  the  Roman  (or  Phonetic) 
method. 

16.  By  the  Roman  method,  every  letter  has  always  the 
same  sound. 

Note.  —  A  long  vowel  in  our  enunciation  almost  necessarily  acquires 
a  slightly  different  quality  from  a  short  one,  as  in  boot  and  foot^  machine 
and  holiest.     See  also  bs  below. 


Vowels 


a  as  in  idea. 
e  as  eh  f  (clipped). 
i   as  in  holiest. 
6  as  in  obey. 
u  as  00  \nfoot. 


Diphthongs 


a  as  vn  father  J 

e  as  eh  f  (prolonged) ;  they; 

X   as  in  machine; 

o  as  in  holy; 

u  as  00  in  boot; 

y  between  u  and  i  (German  «). 

ae  like  ay ;  oe  like  oy ;  au  like  ow  in  now. 

ei  as  in  eight;  eu  as  eh'oo;  ui  as  oo'ee. 

c  and  g  are  always  hard,  as  in  come.,  get. 

s  is  always  sharp,  as  in  sea.,  lips. 

i  cons,  is  like  y  in  young;  v  (cons,  u),  like  w  in 

wing;  qu  as  in  English. 
bB  is  like/j-y  ch  like  k;  ph  like/! 
n  before  s  or  f  was  combined  with  the  preceding 

vowel  somewhat  as  French  nasal  ;/,  making  the 

vowel  long. 
z  as  dz  in  adze. 
th  as  in  rat  hole.,  later  as  in  thin. 

When  two  consonants  come  together  (as  in  con-do,  pos-teri),  or 
a  consonant  is  doubled  (as  in  an-nus,  ul-lus,  mit-to),  care  should  be 
taken  to  pronounce  both  letters  distinctly. 

17.  Roman  names  in  English  {di's,  Julius  CcBsar),  scien- 
tific terms,  titles  of  books,  and  familiar  quotations  (as 
e  pluribus  ununt;  viva  voce;  vice  versa;  veni,  vidi,  viciy 
etc.)  should  be  pronounced  by  the  English  method.  In 
this  the  letters  have  the  same  sounds  as  in  English. 


Consonants, 

as  in  English, 

except  that : 


10 


LETTERS  AND  SOUNDS. 


[§§  i8,  19. 


§§ 


?.o- 


2>: 


INFLECTION. 


II 


Quantity  and  Accent. 

18.  The  Accent  in  Latin  depends  on  the  Quantity  (or 
length)  of  the  last  syllable  but  one.  A  long  vowel  makes 
a  long  syllable.  A  short  vowel  may  make  a  long  syllable 
if  obstructed  by  consonants.  The  following  are  simple 
rules  for  quantity. 

a.   A  vowel  before  another  vowel  or  h  is  short :  as  in  via  nihil 
d.   A  diphthong  is  long:  as  in  aedes,  foedus.     So,  also,' a  vowel 

derived  from  a  diphthong :  as,  exclude  (ex-claudo). 

c.    A  vowel  formed  by  contraction  is  long  :  as,  nil  (nihil) 

^.    A  sj^l/a^/e  in  which  a  .vowel  is  followed  by  two  consonants 

(except  a  mute  with  1  or  r),  or  a  doubk  consonant  (x,  z)  is  long  by 

Position ;  as  in  pingo,  saxum,  Mezentius.     Before  nf  and  ns    gn 

and  gm,  and  i  consonant  the  vowel  itself  becomes  long  by  nature  • 

as  m  infero,  praesens,  magnus,  agmen,  huiua. 

e.    A  syllable  in  which  a  s/ior^  vowel  is  followed  by  a  mute  with  1 

or  r  IS  common  ;  /...  it  may  belong  in  verse  :  as  in  alacris,  multiplex 
/    A  vowel  before  nd,  nt  is  regularly  short  by  nature  :  as,  amant* 

amandus  from  amare. 

19.  The  accent  in  words  of  more  than  one  syllable 
IS  on  the  last  syllable  but  one  (Penult),  or  the  last  but 
two  (Antepenult). 

«.  Words  of  two  syllables  are  always  accented  on  the  first 
syllable  :  Ho  ma,  ve'ho,  i'pse. 

if  tLTT'''  °^  ""'  """^  '^'°  '^""'"^^  ^^^  ^^""'^d  ^  the  Penult, 
^  that  ,s  long:  as,  amrc„s,  praesen'tls;  if  it  is  short  or  common 

praet-f"'"^';"""^    "'   ^°'"^'"'  ^'^'^^^   '-''^>'-«.   conU^fis' 
praete  ritum,  dissocia'bilis  ' 


T 


-^py 


V^ 


d.  Exception  :  Certain  apparent  compounds  of  facio  retain  the 
accent  of  the  simple  verb:  as,  benefa'cit,  calefa'cit  (see  §169. a). 
(These  are  not  true  compounds,  but  phrases.) 

2.    WORDS   AND  THEIR  FORMS. 

INFLECTION. 

20.  Latin  is  an  inflected  language:  i.e.  changes  are 
made  in  the  forms  of  words  to  show  their  grammatical 
relations. 

Such  changes  sometimes  take  place  in  the  body  of  a  word,  or  at 
the  beginning,  but  oftener  in  the  termination  :  as,  vox,  a  voice; 
vocis,  of  a  voice;  tangit,  he  touches;  tetigit,  he  touched. 

Root  and  Stem. 

21.  The  Stem  is  the  body  of  a  word,  of  which  the 
terminations    are  changed. 

22.  A  Root  is  the  shortest  and  simplest  form  that  can 
express  the  main  idea  of  a  word.  It  is  common  also  to 
other  words  either  in  the  same  or  kindred  languages.^ 

Thus  the  root  of  the  stem  reg-  (in  rex)  is  reg,  which  does  not 
mean  to  rule,  or  /  rule,  or  rulifig,  but  merely  expresses  vaguely  the 
idea  of  directing,  and  cannot  be  used  as  a  part  of  speech  without 
added  terminations. 

23.  The  Stem  is  sometimes  the  same  as  the  root :  as  in  due-is, 
of  a  leader;  fer-t,  he  bears;  but  it  is  more  frequently  formed  from 
the  root,  — 

1.  By  changing  or  lengthening  its  vowel:  as  in  scob-s,  sawdust 
{^QK^,  shavey,  res-is,  of  a  king  (reg,  direct)',  voc-is,  of  a  voice 

(voc,  call). 

2.  By  the  addition  of  a  simple  suffix  (originally  another  root):  as 
in  tas-2i,  flight  (FUG  +  a);  fugi-B,/^«yfK(FUG  +  yo);  pango,  I  fasten 
(PAG  +  no). 

1  For  example,  the  root  STA  is  found  in  the  Greek  Urtifu,  Latin  eistere 
and  stare,  German  Jte^en,  and  English  stand. 


I 


'0}  I 


f2  fVOjez?S  AND    THEIR   FORMS.  [f§§  ^8.,8. 

3.    By  two  or  more  of  these  methods  :  as  in  duc-it    h.  I.  ^ 
(DVC  +  o) ;  toUo,  /  ra/s,  (tul  +  yo)  '      '  ^'''^' 

J.  S":t  cr-'S  S'Sir  '■"■ "'  "'*^ 

The  Parts  of  Speech. 

26.   Words  are  divided  into  nine  Parts  of  Speech  • 
^ZJitfonfc:"'  '7°""^'  ^^^•'^'  ^^^'-P'"'  ^Ss,- 

..ons  of  .„>,...,  ,  3H0W  voice,  ™o'od.  tenL^ir^X^T 
made  by  derivation  (cfS  sj  "'''  ""'"'"^  »'«">-forn.a,ions 

OS,  ^repositions,  Conjunctions,  and  Interjections. 
Gender. 

M^i"  7''"  i™^^''  distinguished  in    Latin   are   three  • 
Mascuhne,  Feminine,  and  Neuter.  ' 

a-    The  gender  of  Latin  nouns  is  either  natural  «r 
Natural  gender  is  distinction  as  to  the  sex  of  thT  1      grammatical. 

aci  s^s  in  tKi^  rshin-^r  ^^ '°  ^- ""-  - 

the  adjective  Joined  with  fh^^on     r^  J         /'^  ""^  °' 

-  a'^s  -as"  'z:^  r::  ;r:itr  ""^^'^  -'^^  -  "'-^-^ 

(F.  pi.),  /«e^,.  ^         *"•'•  '"^'"■^'    "I*'*'  ("•  Pl).  workmen;  copUe 


V 


n\7 


\ 


29-3^0 


NUMBER  AND    CASE. 


13 


29.  a.  Names  of  Male  beings,  Rivers,  Winds,  Months, 
and  Mountains,  are  masculine. 

b.  Names  of  Female  beings.  Cities,  Countries,  Plants, 
Trees,  and  Gems,  of  many  Animals  (especially  Birds), 
and  of  most  abstract  Qualities,  2,x^  feminine . 

To  each  of  these  there  are  some  exceptions. 

c.  Indeclinable  nouns,  infinitives,  words,  terms  or 
phrases  used  as  nouns,  or  quoted  merely  for  their  form, 
are  neuter  :  as,  — 

las,  right  J  nihil,  nothing;  gummi,  gum;  scire  tuum,  your 
knowledge  (to  know). 

30.  Many  nouns  may  be  either  masculine  or  feminine,  according 
to  the  sex  of  the  object.  These  are  said  to  be  of  Common  Gender  : 
as,  exsul,  exile ;  bos,  ox  or  cow. 

•  a.  If  a  noun  signifying  a  thing  without  life  may  be  either 
masculine  or  feminine,  —  as,  dies,  day;  finis,  end,  —  it  is  sometimes 
said  to  be  of  Doubtful  Gender. 

b.  Several  names  of  animals  have  a  grammatical  gender,  in- 
dependent of  sex.  These  are  called  Epicene.  Thus  lepus,  hare^  is 
always  masculine,  and  vulpes,/^?^,  is  always  feminine. 

Number  and  Case. 

81.  Nouns,  Pronouns,  Adjectives,  and  Participles  have 
two  Numbers,  singular  dind plural ;  and  six  Cases,  nomina- 
tivey  genitive,   dativey  accusativey    vocative,  ablative. 

a.  The  Nominative  is  the  case  of  the  Subject  of  a  sentence. 

b.  The  Genitive  may  generally  be  translated  by  the  English 
Possessive,  or  by  the  Objective  with  the  preposition  of. 

c.  The  Dative  is  the  case  of  the  Indirect  Object  (§  177).  It  may 
usually  be  translated  by  the  Objective  with  the  preposition  to  ox  for; 
but  sometimes  by  the  Objective  without  a  preposition. 

d.  The  Accusative  is  the  case  of  the  Direct  Object  of  a  verb 
(Intr.  §  15,  §  177).     It  is  used  also  with  many  Prepositions. 

e.  The  Vocative  is  the  case  of  Direct  Address. 

/.  The  Ablative  may  usually  be  translated  by  the  Objective  with 
from,  by,  with,  in,  or  at.     It  is  also  often  used  with  prepositions. 


Id 


14 


DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 


i 

[§5  32,  ZZ- 


g.  All  the  cases,  except  the  nominative  and  vocative,  may  be  used 
as  object-cases;    and  are  sometimes  called   Oblique   Cases. 

h.  In  names  of  towns  and  a  few  other  words  appear  traces  of 
another  case  (the  Locative),  denoting  X\i^  place  where. 


3.     DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 

32.  Nouns  are  inflected  in  five  Declensions,  distin- 
guished by  the  case-ending  of  the  Genitive  Singular,  and 
by  the  final  letter  {characteristic)  of  the  Stem. 

Decl.   I .  Gen.  Sing,  ae     Characteristic  a  (anciently  a) 
"       2.  "  i  «  5 

3*  "  ^  "  i  or  a  Consonant 

4-  "  us  (uis)       "  fi 

5.  "  ei  «  e 


{( 


(t 


It 


a.  The  Stem  of  a  noun  may  be  found,  if  a  consonant-stem,  by 
omitting  the  case-ending  ;  if  a  vowel-stem,  by  substituting  for  the 
case-ending  the  characteristic  vowel. 

b.  The  Nominative  of  most  masculine  and  feminine  nouns  (except 
m  the  first  declension)  is  formed  from  the  stem  by  adding  b.  But 
many  end  in  o,  or  in  the  liquids,  1,  n,  r. 

33.   The  following  are  general  Rules  of  Declension  :  — 

a.  The  Vocative  is  always  the  same  as  the  Nominative,  except  in 
the  singular  of  nouns  ih  us  of  the  second  declension. 

b     In  neuters  the  Nominative  and  Accusative  are  always  alike 
and  m  the  plural  end  in  a. 

c.  The  Accusative  singular  of  all  masculines  and  feminines  ends 
m  m  ;  the  Accusative  plural  in  s. 

d.  In  the  last  three  declensions  (and  in  a  few  cases  in  the  others) 
tnc  Dative  singular  ends  in  i. 

e.  The  Dative  and  Ablative  plural  are  always  alike. 
/    The  Genitive  plural  always  ends  in  mn. 

^.   Final  i,  o,  u  of  inflection  are  always  long;  final  a  is  short 

in  tH" .      ftVl  ""^"^"  ^'  ''^  '"^  ^^^^^-•-^  '  fi-^  e  is  long 
m  the  first  and  fifth  declensions,  short  in  the  second  and  third 


T.J 


**  J 

4I 


'^M\ 


M: 


/ 


§§  34-30-J 


FIRST  DECLENSION. 


IS 


34.    The  Case-endings  of  the  several  declensions  are  the  follow- 
ing, rare  forms  being  given  in  parenthesis^  Greek  forms  in  italics: — 

Decl.  i.  ii.  hi.  ly. 

Sing. 
N.  a,  ^,  as,  es,  us,  um,  er,  os,  on,  ens  s  (or  modified  stem)   us,  u 


G.  ae  (ai)  es     I  (ius)  o,  U,  ei 
D.  ae  (ai)         o  (i)  ei,  eo 
A.  am,  an,  e7i  lun,  on,  ea 
-v>-  S,  ^1  ^ — 
A.  a,  e  o,  eo 

Plur. 

N.v.  ae  i,  a 

G.  arum  (um)  orum  (um,  om)  on 
o.A.  is(abus)  is  (obus 
A.  as  0% 


IS,  jfos,  OS  us  (uis) 

i  (/,  rare)  ui  (u) 

em  (im)  in,yn,  a  um,  u 
^^OB  nonii)  i,  y 

e(i),  "^ye 

is,  a,  ia,  is 
um,  ium,  eon 
ibus 


u 

us,  ua 
uiun 


es 

ei(e) 
ei(e) 
em 


e 

es 
erumi 


ibus  (iibus)  ebus 
es  (is),  a,  ia,  as   us,  ua  is 


FIRST  DECLENSION. 

35.  The  Stem  of  nouns  of  the  First  Declension  ends 
in  a  (originally  a),  and  except  in  Greek  nouns  the 
nominative  is  like  the  stem.  t. 

Nouns  of  the  First  Declension  are  thus  declined:  — 


SINGULAR. 

NoM.    Stella,  a  (or  the)  star. 

Gen.    stellae,  of  a  star. 

Dat.    stellae,  to  (ox  for)  a  star. 

Ace.    stellam,  a  star. 

AAtl.    slellft,  fhuii  star  J        "     ■>• 


PLURAL. 

stellae,  stars. 
stellarum,  of  stars. 
stellis,  to  (ox  for)  stars. 
Stellas,  stars. 
stellae,  y^  *9Mt^  f* 


Abl.    Stella,  'with,frofn,  etc.,  a  star,     stellis,  with,  from,  etc.,  stars. 

Gender.  —  Nouns  of  the  first  declension  are  Feminine. 

Exceptions  :  Nouns  masculine  from  their  meaning :  as,  nauta, 
sailor.     So  a  few  family  or  personal  names  :  as,  Miirena,  Scaevola. 

36.  Case-Forms.  —  a.  The  Genitive  singular  anciently  ended  in 
-ai,  which  is  occasionally  found  :  as,  aulai. 

b.  An  old  genitive  in  -as  is  preserved  in  the  word  familias,  used 
in  the  combinations  pater  (mate.r,  filius,  filia)  familias,  father,  etc., 
of  a  family  (plur.  patres  familias  or  familiarum). 


i6 


DRCLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 


f^r 


K  37- 

Jhe  pfural  .„  „  :  as,  Romae,  «.  Ro„.e;  Athenls.  ..  ^,W 

^  d.    The   Gemfve  plural  is  sometimes  found   in  -iim  instead  of 

V  on     ft'   ^°*"^^"^'  of'"^  --  "/  Troys  Aeneadiln.,  ./' 
M«  WK^  of^neas;  so  amphora  and  drachma 

end\?n^orf:r.rr  ^  ^'"^"  °^  '^^  ^^'^'""' «"-  '^--^-. 

Greek  Nouns. 

37  Many  nouns  of  the  first  declension  borrowed  from 
the  Greek  are  entirely  Latinized,  but  many  retain  traces 
of  their  Greek  forms  in  various  degrees. 

acourti^.y      EUctrai,^.    a  synopsis  (..).    ,Heartof„usici,.). 


NoM.  aula 
Gen.   aulae 
Dat.   aulae 
Ace.    aulam 
Voc.    aula 
Abl.    aula 


Electra  (a) 

Electrae 

Electrae 

Electram  (an) 

Electra 

Electra 


epitome 

epitomes 

epitomae 

epitomen 

epitome 

epitome 


musica  (e) 
m"-  :.  ac  (es) 
liiusicae 
musicam  (en) 
musica  (e) 
miisica  (e) 


NoM.  Andromache  (a)  IZt^'  '■""-"fj^-'^-  "  ^^^"""O^-)- 

GEK.    AndromachesU)  Aen6a"  f  f       "'''"'' ^'> 

DAT.   Andromachae  ^    ^  Ae„"ae  \       ^       """^ 

Ace.    Andromachen  (am)  Aeng^  ram.  YT       ^"'^^ 

Voc.    Andromache  (a)  Ae„eTrsr\        •'.-""-     ^^^^n  (am) 

^  ^  ^enea  (a)        Leonida  (a)    Persa 


Abl.    Andromache  (a)        Aenea 


Anchises  (m.). 
NoM.    Anchises 
Gen.    Anchisae 
Dat.    Anchisae 
Ace.     Anchisen  (am) 
Voc.    Anchlse  (a,  a) 
Abl.     Anchise  (a) 


Leonida         Perse  (a) 


son  of  j£neas  (m.). 
Aeneades  (a) 
Aeneadae 
Aeneadae 
Aeneaden 
Aeneade  (a) 
Aeneade  (a) 


comet  (m.). 
cometes  (a) 
cometae 
cometae 
cometen  (am) 
cometa 
com  eta  (e) 


a.    Many  Greek  nouns  vary  betwPPn  tl,„  «    .  .u 
third  declensions  :   as,  Boo^e  J     o    Bot"         T""''  ^"^  '"^ 
(ace.  plur.  of  Thu'CdidSs,  -is),    t"/;.?^^  t  '"""'''"'"' 


§§  38.  39.] 


SECOND  DECLENSION 


17 


b.  Greek  forms  are  found  only  in  the  singular  ;  the  plural  is 
regular  :  as,  cometae,  -armn,  etc. 

SECOND  DECLENSION. 

38.  The  Stem  of  nouns  of  the  Second  Declension  ends 
in  o  (as  of  vir,  vir5- ;  servos  (-us),  servo- ;  dominus,  domino-). 
The  nominative  is  formed  from  the  stem  by  adding  s  in 
masculines  and  feminines,  m  in  neuters,  the  6  being 
weakened  to  ii.    But  the  ending  -quo  makes  -cus  (not  quus). 

In  most  nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  ro-  the  s  is  not 
added,  but  o  is  lost,  and  e  intrudes  before  r,  if  not  already 
present  (cf.  chamber  from  Fr.  chambre) :  as,  ager,  stem 
agro-,  Greek  ayp6<i. 

Noun^s^^of  the  Second  Declension  are  thus  declined  :  — 


Sing,     s/ave  (m.). 

Stem     servo- 

NoM.   servus  (os) 
Gen.    servi 
Dat.    servo 
Ace.    servum  (om) 
«  VQCwServe,^,..^^,..,,^ 
Abl.    servo 
Plur. 

NoM.   servi 
Gen.    servonim 
Dat.    servis 
Ace.    servos 

Abl.    servis 


boy  (m.). 
puero- 
puer 
pueri 
puero 
puermn 


fe/d  (m.).    man  (m.).    war  (n.). 


puero 

pueri 
pueronmi 
pueris 
pueros 

pueris 


agro- 
ager 

agri 

agro 

agnmi 

ager 

agro 


agri  viri  bella 

agronmi      virormn       bellorum 
agris  '  viris  bellis 

agros  viros  bella 

agri  -'  ■  ^m>.^  ■  viri  v-^^*-  ^H?ct!g ' 
agris  viris  bellis 


Note.  —  Stems  in  -quo,  like  equo-  have  ecus  (equos),  equi,  equo,  ecum 
(equom),  eque.     The  rest  is  regular. 

39.    Gender.  —  Nouns  ending  in  us  (os),  er,  ir,  are  Mas- 
culine ;  those  ending  in  um  (on)  are  Neuter. 

a.    Names  of  towns  in  us  (os)   are   Feminine  :   as,   Connthus. 
Also  many  names  of  plants  and  gems,  and  some  others. 


18 


DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 


I 


I 


[§§  40,41. 

i.   The  following  in  us  are  Neuter  ;   their  accusative  is  the  same 
as   the  nommahve  :   pelaguB  (nom.  ace.  plur.  pelage),  seay  viru., 
/«..«,  vulgus  (rarely  m.),  .^.  ..W,  so  cete,  s.aJons^ers  (nom 
plur.  without  singular).  ^ 

c"tS  •  for   hT  "  ;"•'  -  "'  """'"  ""  '"'  ^''"""'^-  ^o™""^  "' 
i.    The  genitive  of  nouns  in  ius  or  imn  ends  in  a  single  i  •  as  fiU 
./...«.   but  the  accent  of  the  nominative  is  retained^  asiTgsS' 

the  dat,ve  and  ablafve  plural  of  nouns  in  -aius  and  -eius  :  fs  GrSis 
for  the  Greeks;  Pompei,  of  Pompey.  '  ' 

..  Proper  names  in  -ius  lose  e  in  the  vocative,  retaining  the  accent 
of  the  nommat,ve  :  as,  VersMi  ;  also,  fillus,  ..„,  gels  dMne 
guardian  J  as,  audi,  mi  ffli,  Aear,  my  son. 

d.    Greek  names  in  -ius  have  the  vocative  -ie.     Adjectives  in  -ius 

:ztT^::, '"  "'^^"'.^°■"^  °^  "-^^^  -^  occasi!,n:iru::d'^ 

nouns  .  as,  Lacedaemonle,  O  ^/ar/a»/ 

_    '■    The  genitive  plural  often  has  iim  or  (after  v)  Sm  (cf  S  n\  for 
ormn,  espec  a  ly  in  the  ooets  •  as    n^r,^  -      ^.        ^  '' 

r.j.     ■  -        ;  ^      ■      '  "''""•>  superum,  divom,  of  the 

Gods,  varum,  o/n,en.    Also  in  compounds  of  vlr,  and  in  man;  words 

0/  coins,  lugenim,  of  acres.  ' 

dei'^or^-"rl^',''-^'  ™""''  "'"* '  P'"^"'  =  "o-^inative  and  vocative 
or  dU  afr Is? '  T"":  '^™"'  ^'^  ■'  ''^''^  -<^  ablative  deis 

aiC£LTifofte?:s:5^  ^^"'"^^  ^'--  '"^^  -  -^-  c^- 
re.ai^thIt^;l7ir  ^ '" "°-' '-  ^'"■^"  ^  •^^'-^^  *°  ^"^  --. 

adulter,  adulterer;  ggner    c/,«  /„  /^ 

8ocer,/aM^r-,«./«^y  vesper,  ^^^«/«^.  "^^ 

Also,   compounds  in  fer  and  ger  (stem  fero-,  gero-)  •    as    luclfer 
morning  star;  armiger,  squire.  »  S^  o  ;  .    as,  luclfer, 

a.    Some  of  these  have  an  old  nominative  in -ems  •  as   8ocen,« 
00  vocative  Duf»r*»  /»  h^,.  ^    c  '='"0  .  ab,  socenis. 

auve  puere,  «  ^^^,  as  from  puenis  (regularly  puer). 

The  genitive  in  ii  occurs  twir**  in  v;..^i       j 
was  unknown  to  Cicero      Th.  fi^  ^  '  ^""^  ^^"^^^"^ly  in  Ovid,  but 

C^icero.     The  first  1  was  probably  retained  in  sound  as^. 


§§  42,  43-1 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


19 


h 


w 


) 


b.  Vlr,  man,  has  gen.  viri ;  the  adjective  satur,  sated,  has  saturi ; 
vesper,  evening,  has  abl.  vespere  (loc.  vesperi,  in  the  evening). 

c.  Liber  (a   name   of  Bacchus)   has  gen.   Liberi  ;   so,   too,   the 
adjective  liber, /r^^,  of  which  liberi,  children,  is  the  plural  (§  ^2.b). 

42.    The  following  not  having  e  in  the  stem  insert  it  in  the  nomi- 
native and  vocative  singular.     (Cf.  §  10.  d.) 
ager,/^/^/,  St.  agro-;     colMhex,  snake;    m^&Atex,  master; 
aper,  boar;  conger,  j-^^-^^/y^iipister^  servant 


arbiter,  y«^^/  culter,  >6«//^y    ^  ole2iBt&[,~wild-onve; 

auBter,  south  wind;     faber,  smith;        onager  (-grus),  wild-ass; 
cancer,  crab;  fiber,  beaver;        scomber  (-brus),  mackerel. 

caper,  goat ;  liber,  book  ; 

[N.B.  —  For  the  corresponding  forms  of  Adjectives,  see  §  82.] 

43.    Greek  nouns  retain  many  original  forms  and  are  de- 
clined as  follows  in  the  Singular,  the  Plural  being  regular :  — 


fable  (m.).  ?nock-sun{'ii.).  Delos  (f.) 

NoM.  mythos  parelion     Delos 

Gen.  mythi  parelii 

DAT.  mytho  parelio 

Ace.  mython  parelion 

Voc.  mythe  parelion 

Abl.  mytho  parelio 


Deli 
Delo 

Delon  (um) 
Dele 
Delo 


Athos{u.).  Orpheus(u.). 

Athos (o)  Orpheus 

Atho  (i)  Orphei  (eos) 

Atho  Orphei 

Athon  (um)  Orphea 

Athos  Orpheu 

Atho  Orpheo 


a.  Many  names  in  -es  belonging  to  the  third  declension  have  also 
a  genitive  in  -i :  as,  Thucydides,  Thucydidi  (see  §§  37.  b  and  52). 

b.  Several  names  in  -er  have  also  a  nom.  in  :us :  as,  Teucer  or 
Teucrus.     The  name  Panthus  has  the  vocative  Panthii  (§  63.  i). 

c.  The  genitive  plural  of  certain  titles  of  books  takes  the  Greek 
termination  -on  :  as,  CSteorgicon,  of  the  Georgics. 

THIRD    DECLENSION. 

Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension  are  best  classed  accord- 
ing to  their  stems,  as  ending  (i)  in  a  Mute,  (2)  in  a 
Liquid  (1,  n,  r),   (3)  in  a  Vowel  (i). 

A  few  whose  stems  end  in  u,  formerly  long  (grus,  sus),  are  treated 
as  consonant-stems. 


20 


DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 


[§§  44-46. 


I.    Mute-Stems. 

44.  Masculine  and  Feminine  nouns,  whose  stem  ends 
in  a  Mute,  form  the  nominative  by  adding  -s.  If  the 
mute  is  a  lingual  (t,  d),  it  is  suppressed  before  -s;  if  :t  is 
^palatal  (c,  g),  it  unites  with  -s,  forming  -x  :  as, 

I 

op-ia,  Ops,  heip;  custod-is,  cnstoB,  guardian;  reg-is,  rex,  king.^ 

Neuters  have  for  the  nominative  the  simple  stem  (for 
some  modifications,  see  §  45) : 

capit-is,  caput,  head;  poemat-is,  poema,  poem. 

45.  The  vowel  before  the  final  consonant  of  the  stem 
is  often  modified  :  as,  — 

adip-is,     adeps;      particip-is,     particeps;     aucup-is,     auceps  • 
hospit-is,    hospes;     capit-is,    caput;     cord-is,    cor;     poemat-is 
poema;    apic-is,    apex;    indic-is,   index;    but,    comic-is,  comix! 

46.  Nouns  of  this  class  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


Sing,   help  (F.). 

Stem      op- 

NoM.     [ops] 

opis 

opi 

opem 

ops 

ope 

wealth 

opes 

opum 

opibus 

opes 

opes 

opibus 


Gen. 

DAT. 

Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 
Plur. 

NOM. 

Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 


ktng{M.).    guide  {c). 

dnc- 
dux 

ducis 


ree- 
rex 

regis 

regi 

regem 

rex 

rege 

reges 

regum 

regibus 

reges 

reges 

regibus 


duci 
ducem 
dux 
duce 

duces 

ducum 

ducibus 

duces 

duces 

ducibus 


soldier  (m.). 

mflit- 
mjQes 

militis 

militi 

militem 

miles 

milite 

mllites 

militum 

mllitibus 

niTlites 

milites 

mllitibus 


1  In  these  the  genitive  is  given  first  to  show  the  stem  as  it 
vocabulanes. 


head  (n.). 

capit- 
caput 

capitis 

capiti 

caput 

caput 

capite 

capita 

capitum 

capitibus 

capita 

capita 

capitibus 

is  shown  in 


§§  47-49] 


LIQUID-STEMS. 


21 


47.    In  like  manner  are  declined  — 


princeps,  -ipis  (c),  chief; 
lapis, -idis  (m.),  stone; 
custop,  -odis  (c),  guard; 
comes,  -itis  (c),  companion; 


aries,  -etis  (m.),  ram; 
iudex,  -icis  (u.),  Judge; 
cornix,  -icis  (f.),  raven; 
poema,  -atis  (i>i.)^poem  (§  47.  b). 


a.  Many  apparent  mute-stems, ^  having  the  genitive  plural  in  -ium, 
are  for  convenience  classed  with  i-stems  (§  54). 

b.  Greek  neuters  (as  poema),  with  nominative  singular  in  -a, 
frequently  end  in  the  dative  and  ablative  plural  in  -is,  and  in  the 
genitive  plural  rarely  in  -orum. 

c.  A  few  apparent  i-stems  belong  here :  canis,  or  canes,  gen. 
canis  (stem  orig.  can-),  dog  (cf.  §  54). 

2.     Liquid-Stems. 

48.  In  nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  a  Liquid  (i,  n,  r),  the  \ 

nominative  is  the  same  as  the  (modified)  stem,  as  follows : —  I 

As  leon-is,  leo,  lion;  legion-is,  legio,  legion;  virgin-is  virgo, 
maiden;  homin-is,  homo,  man;  turbin-is,  turbo,  whirlpool; 
Apollin-is,  Apollo;  cam-is,  caro,  flesh  (see  §61);  Anien-is,  Anio  ; 
c6micin-is,  comicen  (m.),  horn-blower ;  carmin-is,  carmen  (n.) 
song;  patr-is,  pater,  father;  oper-is  (originally  opesis),  opus, 
work;  ciner-is,  cinis,  ashes. 

Note.  —  A  few  Masculine  and  Feminine  stems  have  a  nom.  in  -s  as 
well  as  -r :  as,  hondr-is,  bonds  (or  honor)  ;  arbdr-is,  arbos   (or  arbor),  tree. 

Stems  in  11-,  rr-  (n.)  lose  one  of  their  liquids  in  the  nominative  : 
as,  farr-is,  far,  grain;  fell-is,  ie\,  gall. 

49.  Nouns  of  this  class  ^re  declined  as  follows  :  — 


Sing. 

consul  (m.). 

lion  (m.). 

maiden  (f.). 

name  (i 

Stem 

consul- 

leon- 

virgin- 

nomin- 

NOM. 

consul 

leo 

virgo 

nomen 

Gen. 

consuUs 

lednis 

virginis 

nominis 

DAT. 

consul! 

ledni 

virgin! 

ndmini 

Ace. 

consulem 

leonem 

virginem 

ndmen 

Voc. 

• 

consul 

led 

virgo 

nomen 

Abl. 

consule 

leone 

virgine 

n5mine 

1  That  is,  as  appears  from  the  nominative.     No  fast  line  can  be  drawn 
between  mute-stems  and  i-stems,  as  they  were  confused  in  both  ways. 


i 


22 
Plur. 

NOM. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Voc. 

Abl. 


DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 


[§§  50.  5' • 


§§  52-54-] 


VOWEL-STEMS. 


23 


consules 

consulum 

consulibus 

consules 

consules 

consulibus 


Sing. 

Stem 
NOM. 

Gen. 

DAT. 

Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 
Plur. 

NOM. 

Gen. 

DAT. 

Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 


dody  (n.). 
coriwr-,  orig. -OS- 
corpus 
corporis 
corpori 
corpus 
corpus 
corpore 


corpora 

corporum 

corporibus 

corpora 

corpora 

corporibus 


leones 

leonum 

leonibus 

leones 

leones 

leonibus 

race  (n.). 

gener-,  orig.  -es- 

genus 

generis 

generi 

genus 

genus 

genere 

genera 

generum 

generibus 

genera 

genera 

generibus 


virgines 

virginum 

virginibus 

virgines 

virgines 

virginibus 

ivory  (n.). 
•    ebor- 
ebur 
eboris 
ebori 
ebur 
ebur 
ebore 

ebora 

ebonun 

eboribus 

ebora 

ebora 

eboribus 


60.    In  like  manner  are  declined  — 


nomina 

ndminiun 

nominibus 

nomina 

nomina 

nominibus 

plain  (n.). 
aequor- 
aequor 
aequoris 
aequori 
aequor 
aequor 
aequore 

aequora 

aequorum 

aequoribus 

aequora 

aequora 

aequoribus 


pater,  patris  {y,i.),  father j 
furfur,  -uris  (m.),  bran; 
opus,  -ens  (n.),  work; 


arbor  (-os),  -oris  (f.),  tree; 
honor  (-os),  -oris  (m.),  honor; 
pignus,  -eris  or  -oris,  pledge. 


pluS'i„'°"l'"!  h'"   °V''''""'   """'''"'^"^  "='-  '"«   genitive 
plural   m  -imn,  and  are  for  convenience  classed  with  the  ifstems  ■ 

tober    hnter.   Ster,    venter  ;  ffir,  gUs,  lar,  mas,  mna  rtrSm     Tso 
vires  (pi.  from  vis  :  see  §  61).  ^^      ^  ' 

3'    Vowel-Stemi. 

61.  Vowel-stems  of  the  Third  Declension  end  in  i-  (as 
turns,    stem    turn- ;   mare    stem    man  \         ^u  .         ^ 

exrenf  in  m.  .         •    r  ^^'       ^^^  nommative, 

except  m  neuters,  is  formed  by  adding  -s  to  the  stem. 


i 


a  Thirty-five  nouns  change  i  and  e  in  the  nominative,  and  many 
others  vary  between  i  and  e :  as,  cives,  or  civis,  citizen  :  canes  or 
canis  (treated  as  i-stem),  dog. 

b  The  nominative  of  a  few  stems  in  bri-  and  tri-  does  not  add  -s, 
but  loses   i,    inserting  e  before  r.     These    are  imber,  linter,  uter, 

venter  (§54,  and  cf.  ager).  . 

,  The  nominative  of  neuters  is  the  same  as  the  stem,  with  the 
change  of  i  to  e  (as  in  mare).  But  when  i  is  preceded  by  al  or  ar, 
the  e  is  lost,  as  in  animal  (§53.  c). 

52.  Nouns  of  this  class  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


Sing.  thirst{¥.). 

Stem     sitl- 

NoM.  sitis 

Gen.  sitia 

DAT.  siti 

Ace.  sitim 

Voc.  sitis 

Abl.  siti 
Plur. 

NOM. 

Gen. 

DAT. 

Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

53. 


tower  (f.). 

turri- 
turris 

turns 

turri 

turrem  (im) 

turns 

turre  (i) 

turres 

turrium 

turribus 

turris  (is) 

turres 

turribus 


cloud  (p.). 

nibi- 
nubes 

nubis 

nQbi 

nubem 

nubes 

nube 

nubes 

nubium 

nubibus 

nubis  (es) 

niibeB 

nubibus 


seat  (n.). 

sediU- 
sedile 

sedllis 

sedili 

sedile 

sedlle 

sedili 

sedllia 

sedilium 

sedilibus 

sedllia 

sedllia 

sedilibus 


animal(ii.)' 

animaU- 
animal 

animalis 

animali 

animal 

animal 

animali 

animaUa 

animalium 

animalibus 

animalia 

animalia 

animalibus 


„«.     Nouns  of  this  class  include  — 

a.  Nouns  in  -is  or  -is  (mostly  feminine)  or  e  (neuter)  having  the  j  J> 
same  number  of  syllables  in  the  nominative  and  gemiWe  iparjfyllabtc).  | 

b.  Those  in  -er,  except  pater,  mater,  frater,  accipiter^  v 
..  Neuters  in  -al,  -ar  (originally  neuters  of  adjectives  m  alis,  -ans) 

which  have  lost  a  final  -e. 

64.     Many  nouns  with  apparently  consonant-stems  were 

originally  i-stems  or  confused  with  them.'     These  are- 

1  The  i-dedension  was  confused  even  to  the  Romans  nor  «»'  ''J'^bk 
a.  all  periods  of  the  language,  early  Latin  havmg  ';^--j'"  >>  i^^^' 
disappeared.     Nouns  tended  to  lose  the  i-forms,  Adjectives,  to  ga.n  them. 


24 


DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 


.^ Monos_ylIables  with  stem  apparently  ending  in  two  consonants  : 
as  urbs  mona  (gen.  mentis),  no:,  (gen.  nootls),  anc  ;  togetlaer 
with  imber,  linter,  uter,  venter  (§51.  b). 

2.  Stems  in  tit-  (as  civiUs,  -Itis),-  or  in  d  or  t  preceded  bv  a 
consonant  (mCuding  participles  used  as  nouns)  ;  also  t'he  monosyL 

l^oTi^'tS'       "'  "^^  °"^'  '^' "  ''"^'  ""^  -"'- 

3.  Nouns  denoting  birth  or  abode,  having  stems  in  at-,  it-,  origi- 


They  are  thus  declined  : 
nzg/t^  (f.). 


Sing.   ^//K  (F.) 

Stbm  urM- 
NoM.  urbs 
Gen.   urbis 
Dat.    urbi 
Ace.    urbem 
Voc.    urba 
Abl.    urbe 
Plur. 

NoM.  urbes 
Gen.   urbium 
Dat.   urbibus 


noctl- 
nox 

noctis 

nocti 

noctem 

nox 

node 

noctes 

noctium 

noctibus 


a^e  (F.). 
aetiti- 
aetas 
aetatis 
aetati 
aetatem 
aetas 
aetate 

aetates 


mouse(M.).  skower{u.). 


muri- 
mus 

muris 

muri 

murem 

mus 

mure 

mures 


aetatmn  (ium)    murium 
aetatibus  muribus 


imbri- 
imber 

imbris 
imbri 
imbrem 
imber 
imbre  (i) 

mbres 

mbrium 

mbribus 

imbris  (es) 

mbres 

mbribus 


Ace.    u  b«  (e»)   nocti,  (es)    aetatis  (es)        „,aris  (es) 
Voc.    urbes  noctes  aetates  rt^mz 

Abl.    urbibus       noctibus       aetaUbns  morfbus 

Note.— The  declension  of  these  nonn«  in  t\.^    ■       ^      ■ 
that  Of  consonant-stems,.and  in  the;i:;arrtha^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  ''' 

56.   Vowel-stems  (real  or  confused)  show  the  i  of  the 
stem  m  the  following  forms :  — 

a.  They  almost  all  have  the  genitive  plural  in    inm    u  . 
monosyllables  lark  it  ^nnv  i        t  ^  ^"^'   ^"*  ^^me 

yuaoies  lack  it  entirely.     Exceptions  are  canis  and  iuvenis 

originally  consonant-stems),  patrials  i.  -as.  Itis  and  is.  lu^ZT^ 
Jw  _othe,3  occasionally  for  metrical  reasons,  or  from  confu^Ton     as 
Arpma.  Arpinatum;  Sanmi.  Sanmitum ;  o^^,^  eladl  '       ' 

^  These,  however,  more  commonly  have  the  genitive  plural  in  -um. 


§§  56.  57.] 


VOWEL-STEMS. 


25 


b.  All  neuters  have  the  nominative  and  accusals vf  pluial  in  -ia. 

c.  The  accusative  plural  (m.  or  f.)  is  regularly  -is. 

d.  The  accusative  singular  (m.  or  f.)  of  a  few  ends  in  -im  (§  56). 

e.  The  ablative  singular  of  all  neuters,  and  of  many  masculines 
and  feminines,  ends  in  -i  (see  §  57). 

56.  The  regular  case-ending  of  the  accusative  singular 
of  i-stems  (m.  or  f.)  would  be  -im :  as,  Bitis,  sitim  (cf .  steUa, 
-am ;  servos,  -cm) ;  but  in  most  nouns  this  is  changed  to 
-em  (following  the  consonant  declension). 

a.  The  accusative  in  -im  is  found  exclusively  — 

1.  In  Greek  nouns  and  names  of  rivers. 

2.  In  burls,  cucumis,  ravis,  sitis,  tussis,  vis. 

3.  In  adverbs  in  -tim  (being  accusatives  of  nouns  in  -tis),  as 

partim  ;  and  in  amussim. 

b.  The  accusative  in  -im  is  found  sometimes  in  febris,  puppis, 
restis,  turns,  securis,  sementis,  and  rarely  in  many  other  words. 

57.   The  regular  ablative  singular  of  i-stems  would  end 
in  -i:  as,  sitis,  siti;  but  in  most  nouns  this  is  changed  to  -e. 

a.  The  ablative  in  -i  is  found  exclusively  — 

1 .  In  nouns  having  the  accusative  in  -im  (§  56) ;  also,  securis. 

2.  In  aequalis,  amiaUs,  aquaUs,  consularis,  gentiUs,  molaris, 

primipilaris,  tribulis  used  as  nouns. 

3.  In  neuters  (whose  nominative  ends  in  -e,  -al,  -ar):  except 

baccar,  iubar,  and  sometimes  (in  verse)  mare,  rete. 

b.  The  ablative  in  -i  is  found  sometimes  — 

1.  In  avis,  clavis,  febris,  finis,  igms,i  imber,  navis,  ovis, 

pelvis,  puppis,  sementis,  strigiUs,  turris. 

2.  In  affinis,  bipennis,  canaUs,  familiaris,  natalis,  rivaUs, 

sapiens,  tridens,  triremis,  vocaUs  used  as  nouns. 

c.  The  ablative  of  fames  is  always  fame.     The  defective  mane 
has  sometimes  locative  mani  used  as  ablative. 

d.  Most  names  of  towns  in  -e,  —  as  Praeneste,  Tergeste,  —  and 
Soracte,  a  mountain,  have  the  ablative  in  -e.     Caere  has  Caerete. 

e.  For  canis,  see  §  47-  '^• 

1  Always  in  the  formula  aqua  at  igni  interdici  (§  243.  a). 


26 


DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 


[§§58-61. 

_  a  vcr>    rarely  lound  in  nouns.     The  re^nlpr   a^^      .• 

-"  .s  common,  but  not  exclusively  used  in  any  3  "*"""  '" 

59.    The  following  have  -nm  Cnot  -luml  ■„   tK 

caniB,   iavenis  (originally  consonant  stS-  LI-  ?'"""^  P'"-"^'  ■ 

only,  otherwise  wanting),  volucris  ■  alo.^;  T^'''  ""*  ^°"^^ 

elides,  naensis,  sedes    stnaes    subolSs   vitr      ^  "^"'  *=^^^'''' 
-atia;  -is,  -iHg.  a,    .,,,?„-     !    ^''"'es,  vates,  and  patrials  in  -as 
.   lbs ,  as,  Arpmas,  Arponatmn ;  Samnis.  Samnitum. 

4-    Irregular  Nouns 

«.    The  vowel-stems  crii-    m    -^.aa       •      ', 
inflected  like  mute-stems^r^s  h"as  ',  Ja'"      '  "°'"'"""^'  ^""^  ^"^^ 
both  3U..      and  SU.US  in  L  L^  td  l^reXr  ^  ^  '='  "^ 
'^^  In  the  stem  bov-  rbou-^  thp  a\  u.u  ^ 

nominative(bo-.b6v,s)/  °:i^;   (tai    7,°"  '1^  °"  '"  *^ 
In  lov-  (=ZeA)  the    diphthong    rlu^h  -'''''''  ^"^^^'  ■^>- 

-pater),  ^en.  Kvls,  etc  ^    ^     ^      '"""'^  '^  '"  ^^'P^'  (for 

-3^^").":'  '"n:"t£i'rme?r"  'V'  --"-  "— 

sems  from  a  longer  •   so    hatTh  /  "'°''''''  ^'^"''  '"  ««"«• 

distinct  forms.     The  shorter  fl'  T'^  '''°"  ^  ""'«--  <>'  two 

''•  Of  the  many  origin      3  !t      "    T"  "  *^  «^"'"'-  '«=-- 

--).  .tains  its^oTerfLrS/^:^ -;f-  C.)  (P..  ..a, 

61.   Some  peculiar  forms  are  thus  declined  •_ 


4 

§§62-64.]         CASE-FORMS  AN%   GREEK  FORMS. 


27 


N.,  V 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 

Plur. 


bos 

bo  vis 

bovi 

bovem 

bove 

cattle 


N.,A.,V.  boves 
Gen.        bourn 
D.,  Abl.  bobus 
(bubus) 


senez 

senis 
seni 
senem 
sene 

senes 
senum 


caro 

carnis 
carni 
earn  em 
came 

carnes 
carnium 


OS 

ossis 
ossi 

OS 

osse 

ossa 
ossiuin 


sembus   carnibus     osslbus    virtbus 


Vis 

vis  (rare)    suis 

vi  (rare)     sui 

vim 

VI 

strength 
vires 

virimn 


BUS 


suem 

sue 


sues 
sumn 
subus 
(suibus) 


5,  Case-Forms. 

62.  The  Locative  form  ends  in  the  singular  in  -i  or  -e : 
as,  ruri,  in  the  country  ;  Carthagini  or  Carthagine,  at  Carthage; 
in  the  plural  in  -ibus:  as,  TraUibus,  at  Tralles. 

6.  Greek  Forms. 

63.  Many  nouns  originally  Greek  — mostly  proper 
names  —  retain  Greek  forms  of  inflection. 

a.  Stems  in  in-  (i  long)  :  delphinus,  -i  (m.),  has  also  the  form 
delphin,  -inis ;  Salamis,  -inis  (p.),  has  ace.  Salamina. 

b.  Most  stems  in  id-  (nom.  -is)  often  have  also  the  forms  of  i-stems  : 
as,  tigris,  -idis  (-idos)  or  -is ;  ace.  -idem  (-ida)  or  -im  (-in) ;  abl.  -Xde 
or  -i.  But  many,  including  most  feminine  proper  names,  have  ace. 
-idem  (-ida),  abl.  -ide,  —not  -im  or  -i.     (These  stems  are  irregular 

also  in  Greek.) 

c.  Stems  in  on-  sometimes  retain  -n  in  the  nominative  :  as,  Aga- 
memnon (or  Agamemno),  -onis,  accusative  -ona. 

d.  Stems  in  ont-  form  the  nom.  in  -on :  as,  horizon,  Xenophon^; 
but  a  few  are  occasionally  Latinized  into  on-  (nom.  -o) :  as,  Draco, 

-onis.  .         _  ^ 

e.  Stems  in  ant-,  ent-  have  the  nom.  in  -as,  -is:  as  adamas,  -an^s ; 
SimoiB,  -entis.     So  a  few  in  unt-  (contracted  from  oent-)  have  -us: 
as,  Trapezus,  -untis.     Occasionally  the   Latin  form  of  nominative  is. 
also  found  :  as,  Atlans,  elephans,  as  well  as  Atlas,  elephas. 

/.  Many  Greek  nouns  have  gen.  -os,  ace.  -a;  plur.  nom.  -es,  ace. 
-as :  as,  air,  aether,  crater,  heros  (-ois),  lampas  (-adis  or  -Sdos), 
lynx  (-cis  or  -cos),  nais  (-idos),  Orpheus  (-eos :  see  §  43)- 

g  A  few  in  -ys  have  ace.  -yn,  voc.  -y,  abl.  -ye :  as,  chelys,  -yn. 
-y ;  Capys,  -yos,  -yi,  -jn,  -y,  -ye. 

A.  Several  feminine  names  in  -o  have  gen.  sing,  -us,  all  the  other 
cases  ending  in  -5  ;  they  may  also  have  regular  forms  :  as,  Dido,  gen. 
Didonis  or  Didus ;  dat.  Didoni  or  Dido,  etc. 

t.  Several  Greek  forms  are  irregularly  retained  in  the  vocative  :  as, 
Panthus,  voc.  Panthu ;  Orpheus,  Orpheu ;  Atlas,  Atla ;  Daphnis, 
Daphni ;  Pericles,  Pericle  (cf.  §  43)- 

64.  Some  of  these  forms  are  seen  in  the  following 
examples  :  — 


28 

Sing.  /tero(M.), 

Stem  hero- 
N.,  V.  heros 
Gen.  heroia 
Dat.  heroi 
Ace.    heroa 
Abl.    heroe 
Plur. 

N.,  V.  heroes 
Gen.  heroum 
D.,A.iheroibus 
Ace.    heroas 


DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 
^ase(F,).  naiadij.). 


lampad- 
lampas 

lampados 
lampadi 
lampada 
lampade 

lampades 
lampadum 
lampadibus 
lampadas 


basi- 
basis 

baseos 
basi 
basin 
basi 


naid- 
nais 

naidos 
naidi 
naida 
naide 


bases  naides 

basium(eon)  naidum 
basibus  naidibus 

basis  (eis)      naidas 


PROPER   NAMES. 

^'"^5  simois 

Drdonis(u8)     Simoentis 
Didoni  (5)         Simoenti 

voc.   Adas  (a)    Dido  simo" 

Abl.   Atlante       Didone  (o)        simoelte 


[§§65,66. 

tifiTld-(ti«Tl-) 

tigrls 

tigris  (idos) 
tigri 

tigrin  (ida) 
tigri  (ide) 

tigres 
tigrium 
tigribus 
tigris  (idas) 


§§  67-70.] 


FOURTH  DECLENSION. 


29 


NoM.  Atlas 
Gen.  Atlantis 
Dat.  Atlanti 
Ace.    Atlanta 


Capys 

Capyos 

Capyi 

Capyn 

Capy 

Capye 


^aphnis 

Daphnidis 
Daphnidi 
Daphnim  (in) 
Daphnr 
Daphni 


Note       tk  ,  —         ^^^      iJaphni 

7.    Rules  of  Gender. 

a-  Masculine  endino-s  an*  s 

*•  Feminine  endingf  are  -2  2'°-nT  T  ^^^"-  '''^  -'«»)• 
-  (Mowing  a  consonant)  ;  "s?  do      ^V"'  <««°-  'H  -i«.  -ye!  -^ 
-d  coUecive),  and  -ils  feL  ^^^  '^^  ^«-'  ■'^).  -^5  (abstract 

<^-  Neuter  endings  are  -a  -e    L   , 
""■  -'^'  -S»  (gen.  -eris,  -oris)   '   ^  "^'  "°'  "'•  ■*'•  -ae"  (gen.  -miniB)  ; 

''o--- AH  these  have  exceptions. 

66.    For  general  Rules  fnr  tu^  n      , 

third  declension,  classed  III      ''^"'  "^  "^'""^  "^  ^he 

Allen  and  Greece  gh's, a  rer'"'  ''  '""''^  ^^^-«'  -e 

"t,"  s  larger  grammar. 

'  Native,  heroisin  (once  only). 


67.  For  the  Forms  of  Inflection  of  nouns  of  the  third 
declension,  classed  according  to  their  stems,  see  Allen 
and  Greenough's  larger  grammar. 

FOURTH   DECLENSION. 

68.  The  Stem  of  nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension  ends 
in  u-  weakened  to  i,  before  -bus.  Masculine  and  femi- 
nine nouns  form  the  nominative  by  adding  -s;  neuters 
have  for  nominative  the  simple  stem,  but  with  u  (long). 

Nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension  are  thus  declined :  — 


Sing.  ^and  (f.). 

Stem  manii- 

NoM.  manus 

Gen.  manus 

DAT.  manm  (u) 

Ace.  manum 

Voc.  .QianiiB., 
Abl.  manu 

Plur. 

NoM.  manuB 
Gen.  manuum 

DAT.  manibus 

Ace.  manus 

Voc.  -j»a«tts 
Abl.  manibus 


/ake  (M.). 
Uca- 

lacus 

lacus 

lacui  (u) 

lacum 
^   lacus 

lacu 

lacus 

lacuum 

lacubuB 

lacus 

lacus 

lacubus 


knee  (n.). 
genu- 
genu 

genu  (us) 

genu 

genu 

'  genw 
genu 

genua 
genuum 
genibus 
genua 
__  genua  — 
genibus 


69.  Gender.  — «.  Most  nouns  in"-us  are  Masculine.  The  fol- 
lowing are  Feminine  :  acus,  anus,  colus.  domus,  idus  (pi.),  manus, 
nunis,  porticus,  quinquatrus  (pi.),  socrus,  tribus,  with  a  few  names 
of  plants  and  trees.     Also,  rarely,  arcus,  penus,  sp^cus. 

d.  The  only  neuters  are  comu,  genu,  pecu,  verii. 

70.  Case-Forms.  —  a.  The  uncontracted  form  -uis  (sometimes 
-uos)  is  sometimes  found  in  the  genitive,  as  senatuos;  and  an  old 
(irregular)  genitive  in  -i  is  used  by  some  writers  :  as,  ornati,  senati. 

d.  The  nominative  plural  has  rarely  the  form  -uus. 

c.  The  genitive  plural  is  sometimes  contracted  into  -urn. 


30  .    DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS.  [§§71,72. 

d.  The  following  retain  the  regular  dative  and  ablative  plural  in 


N.,V. 
Gen. 

DAT. 

Ace. 
Abl. 


SINGULAR. 

domus 

domus  (domi,  loc.) 

domui  (domo) 

domum 

domo  (domu) 


PLURAL. 

domus 

domuum  (<Join5vun) 
domibus 
domos  (cbmOs) 
domfbti^ 


cantus,  song,  can,  oano,  sing  ^        ^  ^      ^  '^^-  ''^  '  ^' 

A    Hf  ,»o«         u  1   ,    .  ^  ».s  *"y-  ^;  .  as,  auditum,  visu. 

^.  Of  many  verbal  derivatives  onlv  the  ahbnW  i.    ^ 

FIFTH   DECLENSION. 

in  r*    Si  ^''"  1."''"'  ''  ^'^  ^^'^^  ^^^^^"-«"  ends 
in  e.     The  nominative  is  formed  from  it  by  adding  -a 

1  hese  nouns  are  thus  dech'ned  :  — 

SING,  c/ajy  (M.).  PLUR. 


SING.  M/>/^  (f.)  PLUR 

Sthm  re- 

NoM.  res  res 

Gen.  rei  renim 

DAT.  rei  rebus 

Ace.  rem  res 

Voe.  reg== — "****&_ 

^^L.  re  rebus 


die- 
dies 

diei  (die) 

diei  (die) 

diem 

-UI88  ~  ~ "  "^ 
die 


dies 
dierum 
diebus 
dies 


fide^ 
fides 

fidei 

fidei 

fidem 

fidgs 

fide 


diebus  ..^^ 

^  The  forms  in  parenthesis,  except  domi  (cf  s  ^^    x 

^   aomi  (ct.  ^  70.^),  are  less  common. 


§§73-75-] 


DEFECTIVE  NOUNS. 


31 


Note  —  The  e  has  been  shortened  in  the  genitive  and  dative  singular 
of  fides,  spes,  res,  but  in  these  it  is  found  long  in  early  Latin. 

73  Gender  —  All  nouns  of  this  declension  are  feminine,  except 
dies  (usually  m.),  day.  and  meridies  (m.),  noon.  Dies  is  sometimes 
feminine  in  the  singular,  regularly  so  when  used  of  time  in  general  : 
as,  longa  dies,  a  long  time;  constituta  die.  on  a  set  day;  also  m 
the  poets  :   as,  pulchra  dies,  a  fine  day. 

74  Case-Forms. -«.  The  Genitive  singular  anciently  ended  in 
^B  (cf.  -as  of  first  declension,  §  36.  ^).  The  genitive  ending  -ei  was 
sometimes  contracted  into  -ex.  -i.  or  -e :  as,  dii  (^n.  i.  636),  and  the 
phrases  plebi-scitum,  tribunus  plebei. 

b.  The  fifth  declension  is  only  a  variety  of  the  first,  and  several 
nouns  have  forms  of  both  :  as,  materia,  -ies;  saevitia  -ies. 

c  The  Locative  of  this  declension  ends  in  -e.  It  is  found  m 
certain  adverbs  and  expressions  of  time:  as,  hodie  (for  hoi-die, 
cf.  huic),  to-day;  perendie.  day  after  to-morrow;  die  quarto  (old, 
o,v^xt\\  the  fourth  day ;   ipxldie,  the  day  before.  ^    ,.     a 

d  Of  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension,  dies  and  res  only  are  dechned 
throughout.  Most  want  the  plural,  which  is  found,  however  m  the 
no^minative  and  accusative  in  thejollowing  :  a^cies,  effigies,  eluvies. 
facies,  glacies,  series,  species,  spes. 


DEFECTIVE  NOUNS. 

76.    Some  nouns  are  ordinarily  found  in  the  Singular 
number  only  {slnguldria  iantnni).     These  are  — 

1    Most  proper  names  ;  as  Caesar,  Ci^sar,  GalUa,  Gaul.  ^ 

2.  Names  of  things  not  counted,  but  reckoned  in  mass:  as,aurum, 

eold;  aor,  air;  tritlcum,  wheat.  

3.  Abstract  nouns:   as,  ambitio,  ambition;  io^t^^Ao.  courage; 

calor.  heat. 

But  many  of  these  are  used  in  the  plural  in  some  other 

sense.     Thus, — 

a.  A  proper  name  may  be  applied  to  two  or  more  persons  or  places, 
or  even  things,  and  so  become  strictly  common  :  a.,  duodeom. 
CaeBares,  the  twelve  Casars  ;  GalUae,  the  two  Gauls  C^'^-;"/  Tra"s- 
alpine)  ;  CastoreB,  Castor  and  Pollux ;  loveB,  images  of  Jup.ter. 


32 


DECLEI^SION  OF  NOUNS. 


[§§  76-79. 
b.  Particular  objects  may  be  denoted  •  as  ap«  h 

nive^  sno^Jlakes;   or  different  kinds  of '  a  Ihin/:    Z^^'  '''""'^' 
(good  and  bad).  '"^  "    ^'  ^^res,  airs 

or  th7l '/'"''  ''  '^''''''  """"^  ^^"^^^^  --^—  of  the  Qualitv 
or  the  hke  :  as,  guaedam  &^c^tA\^r>^^^  quaiity, 

S-^^^  limes  0/ heat  znd  cold.     (See  also  §  79.  ^.) 

76     Some  nouns  are  commonly  found  only  in  the  Plural 
ipluralta  tantum  [cf.  §  79.  ,]).      Such  are  - 

v^  ^a^^  rr:: —•  irr:;  tz.  ir  ^'""'^ 

e,  r/ry4«,    Bcalae,  jtorxy  valvae,  folding-doors. 

or  Ifh?  °^''"  """-^^  '  corresponding  singular  in  some  form 
or  other,  as  noun  or  adjective. 

«•  As  noun,  to  denote  a  single  obiect  •   as   B,^„h-     . 
sacred  to  BaccHus ;  optunaa,  «„  L,X  "^  ''  ^^"^ 

*.  As  adjective  :  as,  Cato  Maior,  Cato  the  Elder 

c.  in  another  sense  :  as  acala  n  /..w  ^ 

as,  scala,  a  ladder;  artns,  a  joint. 

77.    Many  nouns  are  defective  in  case  forme     t7     i- 
see  Allen  and  Greenough's  larger  grammar  ' 

VARIABLE  NOUNS. 


§80.] 


VARIABLE  NOUNS. 


33 


a.  Many  nouns  vary  in  meaning  in  the  Singular  and  Plural :  as,- 


aediB,  -is  (f.),  temple; 
aqiia  (F.),  water; 
auxilium  (n.),  help; 
bomam  (N.),  a  good; 
career  (N.),  dungeon; 
caatnim  {y^-^.fort; 


aedes,  -ium,  house. 
aquae,  a  watering-place. 

auxilia,  auxiliaries. 

bona,  property. 

carceriB,  barriers  (of  race-course). 

^       /XT  \    fnrt  •  caBtra,  camp. 

Z^J^i'p'^ce  ofasseniHy;  con.Ua. an  election.o^n  ,neetin,, 

'  •    f^\  ^hntv  ■  copiae,  troops. 

copia  (F.),  plenty ,  •   -     / 

lide.  (K  ).  ^«^/  strin,;  ^^  'y^ds,  territories. 

^tl^(.0.7i-(rare.v.M.«..);S^«ae.  M.«..  (also,  M.  .;.-«). 
Cientum(x.),to</-»«/   impediment^  *«^«/^. 
Uttera  (F.),  Mter  (of  alphabet);    Utterae  ./»//.. 

locus  (M.),  Z*/"^'  [Pl- 1°<=^  (=^-)] ;    ^'^''  "'^'"'         ,. 
V     ^'z-  izai,  iuilic  games. 

ludns  (M  ),  ./.r/;  ^     ^^^^  ^^./a*.««  ("hands"). 

opera  (f  ).  ^orky  ^^^^^^ 

[ops]  op»  (F.),  ^e¥  (S  46)  ,  P^^  ^^^  ^,^^  ^^^g^)  ^^,,,. 

pars  (F.),  o  /«^/  -^  ^  ^^^^^.^    ^^^^^^„, 

rostrum  (N.),  ieai  0/  a  sntp ,  "•   r 

-.  ,  Js    ,„U  ■  sales,  witticisms. 

ail  (M.  or  N.),  salt, 

..The  singular  of  a  noun  usuaUy  <>enoting  an  individual  is^^^^^^ 
times  used  collectively  to  denote  a  group  :  as  Poenus. 
^nians  ■  mfles,  the  soldiery  ;  eques,  the  cavalry. 
^       O    many  nouns  the  plural  is  usually,  but  not  exclusively,  used  : 
as  cervice..  the  neck;  Quirites.  Romans;  vxscera,  flesh 
".The   poets  often  use  the  plural  ---  .ngfMor  ^^ 
reasons  or  from  a  mere  fashion  :  as,  ora  (for  os),  the  face , 
(ir^ptrum).  sceptre;  sUentia  (for  silentium),  silence. 

^PROPER  NAMES. 

80.    A  Roman  had  regularly  three  names,  denoting  the 
person,  It^t  gens,  and  i\^e  family. 

■      u       ,™„  MSrcus  TuUius  Cicero,  we  have  Marco* 
a.  Thus,  m  the  °=""\f  "^"^  .^^  ,he  nomen  (properly  an 
the  praenKmen.  or  Persona!  name  ,  Tmuus, 


34 


ADJECTIVES. 


[§8i. 


adjective),  i.e.  the  name  of  the  gens,  or  house,  whose  supposed  orig- 
inal head  was  a  Tulhis  ;  Cicero,  the  cdgndmcn,  or  family  name. 

NOTK.  —  When  two  persons  of  the  same  family  are  mentioned  together, 
the  cognomen  is  usually  in  the  plural  :  as  Publius  et  Servius  Sullae. 

b.  A  fourth  or  fifth  name  was  sometimes  given.  Thus  the  com- 
plete name  of  Scipio  tiie  Younger  was  PiSblius  ComeUus  Scipio 
Airicaiius  Aemiliaiui3 :  AiricaiiuB.  from  his  exploits  in  Africa; 
Aemiliaiius,  as  adopted  from  the  yl'jDilian  gens. 

c.  Women  had  commonly  in  classical  times  no  personal  names,  but 
were  known  only  by  the  nomen  of  their  gens.  Thus,  the  wife  of 
Cicero  was  Torontin,  and  his  daughter  Tullia.  A  youngrr  dauglitrr 
would  have  been  called  TuUia  secuiida  or  minor,  and  so  on. 

d.  The  commonest  prasnomcns  are  thus  abbreviated  : 

A.  Aulas.  L.  Lucius.  Q.  Quiiitus. 

App.  Appius.  M.  Marcus.  Ser.  Servius, 

C.  (G.)  Gaius  {Caius)  (cf.  §  6).  M'.  Manius.  Sex.  Sextu's. 
Cn.  (Gn  )  Gnaeus  {Cneins).  Mam.  Mamercus,  Sp.  Spurius. 

D.  Decimus.  n.  Numerius.         T.  Titus. 

K.  Kaeso  {Caeso).  r  PubUua  Ti  Tiberius. 


4.    ADJECTIVES. 

INFLECTION. 

Adjectives  and  Participles  are  formed  and  declined 
like  Nouns,  differing  only  in  their  use.  They  distinguish 
gender  by  different  forms  in  the  same  word,  and  agree 
with  their  nouns  in  gender,  numhcr,  and  ease.  They  are 
(i)  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions,  or  (2)  of  the 
Third  Declension. 

I.     First  and  Second  Declensions. 

81.  Adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions  (a-  and 
o-stems)  are  declined  in  the  Masculine  like  servus.  in  the 
Feminine  like  steUa.  and  in  the  Neuter  like  beiium;  as, — 


§S2.] 


M. 

Stfm  bono- 
No.M.  bonus 
CiE.v.  boni 
Dat.  bono 
Ace.  bonum 
Voc.  bono 
Ahl.    bono 


FIRST  AND  SECOND  DECLENSIONS. 
bonus,  good. 
M. 


35 


SINGULAR. 
V. 

bona- 
boiia 

bonae 

bonae 

i)onam 

bona 

bona 


N. 

bono- 

boiium 

boni 

bono 

bonum 

l)onuni 

bono 


PLURAL. 
F. 


boni 


N. 

bona 


bonae 

bonorum    bonarum  bononim 

bonis  bonis  bonis 

bo)ios  bonis  bona 

i)oni  bonae  bona 

bonis  bonis  bonis 


Note. -Stems   in  quo-   have  non.inative  -cus,  -qua, -cum,  accusative 
-cum,  -qunm,  -cum,  to  avoid  -quu,  (sc^-o  §  7).      rh„s,  ^ 

No.M.     rellcus  (-quos)  ,eliqua  relicum  (-quom) 

Gen.      rehqui  reliquae  reliqui,  etc. 

a.  The  masculine  genitive  .sin^^ular  of  Adjectives  in  -ius  ends  in 
-ii,  and  the  vocative  in  -ie ;  not  in  -i.  as  in  Nouns  (cf.  §  40.  b,  c)  •  as 
Lacedaemonius,  -ii.  -ie.  »  4     ^,  ^;  .  as, 

82  Stems  ending  in  10-  preceded  by  e  or  a  consonant  (also  satur) 
form  the  masculine  nominative  like  noun-stems  in  ro-  of  the  second 
declension  (cf.  puer,  ager,  §  38).     They  are  thus  declined  •  - 


Sing. 


N. 
(]. 
D. 
Ac. 


miser,  wretched. 
Sthm  mlsero-,  a-,  0- 


miser 
miscri 
misero 
mi  serum 
miser 

Ab.  misero 

Plur. 

N.    miscri 


misera 

miscrae 

miserae 

miscram 

misera 

misera 

miserae 


niiseium 

miseri 

misero 

miscrum 

miserum 

misero 


niger 

nigri 

nigro 

nigrum 

niger 

nigrS 


niger,  black. 
niero-,  a-,  o- 

nigra 

nigrae 

nigrae 

nigram 

nigra 

nigra 


nigrum 

nigri 

nigro 

nigrum 

nigrum 

nigro 


nigri  nigrae        nigra 


misera 
'.     m,serorum  mi.serarum  miserorum  nigrorum  nigrarum  nigrorum 
i>.    "nscns         miseris         miseris         nigris         nigris         ni^ris 
Ac.  miseros        miscras        misera  nigros        nigras 

V.     miscri 

Ab.  miseris 
Note. 


nigra 


nigri 


nigrae 


nigra 


miserae        misera 

miseris         miseris        nigris         nigris        nigris 
Which  type  is  followed  is  shown  by  the  dictionary. 


a.  Stems  in  ero-  (as  procerus),  with  morigerus,  properus,  have 
the  regular  nominative  masculine  in  -ua 


34 


ADJECTIVES. 


[§8i. 


adjective),  i.e.  the  name  of  the  gens,  or  house,  whose  supposed  orig- 
inal head  was  a  TuUus  ;  Cicero,  tlic  coquofnen,  or  family  name. 

NoTi:.  —  When  two  persons  of  the  same  family  are  mentioned  together, 
the  cognomen  is  usually  in  the  plural  :  as  Publius  et  Servius  SuUae. 

b.  A  fourth  or  fifth  name  was  sometimes  given.  1  hus  the  com- 
plete name  of  Scipio  tiie  Younger  was  Publius  Comeliua  Scipio 
Alricaiius  Aemilianus :  Airicaima,  from  his  exploits  in  Africa: 
Aemiliaims,  as  adopted  from  the  /ICmilian  gens. 

c.  Women  had  commonly  in  classical  times  no  personal  names,  but 
were  known  only  by  the  twmen  of  their  gens.  Thus,  the  wife  of 
Cicero  was  Toiontin,  and  his  daughter  Tullln.  A  youngrr  daughter 
would  have  been  called  Tullia  secuuda  or  minor,  and  so  on. 

d.  The  commonest  prxnomens  are  thus  abbreviated  :  — 


A.  Aulus. 
App.  Appiua 

C.  (G.)  Gains  {Cants)  (cf.  §  6). 
Cn.  (Gn  )  Gnaeus  {Cneiiis). 

D.  Decimus. 

K.  Kaeso  {Caeso). 


I*.  Lucius.  Q.  QuiiituB. 

M.  Marcus.  Ser.  Servius. 

M'.  Manius.  Sex.  Sextus. 

Mam.  Mamercus.  Sp.  Spurius. 
N.  Numerius.  T.  Titus. 

P.  Publius.  Ti  Tiberius. 


4.     ADJECTIVES. 


INFLECTION. 


Adjectives  and  Participles  are  formed  and  declined 
like  Nouns,  differing  only  in  their  use.  They  distinguish 
gender  by  different  forms  in  the  same  word,  and  agree 
with  their  nouns  in  gender,  number,  and  ease.  They  arc 
(i)  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions,  or  (2)  of  the 
Third  Declension. 

I.     First  and  Second  Declensions. 

81.  Adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions  (a- and 
o-stems)  are  declined  in  the  Masculine  like  servus.  in  the 
Feminine  like  steUa,  and  in  the  Neuter  like  beUum;  as, 


§  S2.] 


FIRST  AXD  SECOND   DECLENSIONS. 


35 


M. 

Stfm  bono- 
No.M.  bonus 

Gen.  boni 

Dat.  bono 

Ace.  bonum 

Voc.  bono 

Ahl.  bono 


SINGULAR. 
K. 
bona- 
bona 

bonae 
bonae 
bonam 
bona    - 
bona 


bonus,  good. 


N. 

bono- 
bonum 

boni 

bono 

bonum 

bonum 

bono 


M. 


PLURAL. 
P. 


N. 


boiii  bonae  bona 

bonorum  bonarum  bononim 

bonis  bonis  bonis 

bojios  boiias  bona 

boni  bonae  bona 

bonis  bonis  lx>ni8 


Note.  —  Stems   in  quo-   have  nominative  -cus,  -qua, -cum,  accusative 
-cum,  -quam,  -cum,  to  avoid  -quii,  (see  §  7).      I  hus, 


NoM.     relicus  (-quos) 
Gen.      rcliqui 


reliqua  relicum  (-quom) 

reliquae  rcliqui,  etc. 

a.  The  masculine  ^'cnitivc  singular  of  y\djectives  in  -ius  ends  in 
-ii,  and  the  vocative  in  -ie ;  not  in  -i,  as  in  Nouns  (cf.  §  40.  b,  c)  :  as, 
Lacedaemouius,  -ii,  -ie. 

82.  Stems  ending  in  ro-  preceded  by  e  or  a  consonant  (also  satur) 
form  the  masculine  nominative  like  noun-stems  in  ro-  of  the  second 
declension  (cf.  puer,  ager.  §  38).     They  are  thus  declined  :  — 


Sing. 


miser,  wretched. 
Stkm  miscro-,  a-,  0- 


N.     miser 
(i.     miscri 
D.     misero 
Ac.   miserum 
V.     miser 
Ab.  miserS 
Plur. 
N.    miscri 


mi  sera 

miscrae 

miserae 

miscram 

mi  sera 

miscra 

miserae 


miseiiim 

miscri 

mi.scro 

miserum 

miserum 

miscro 


niger 

nigri 

nigro 

nigrum 

niger 

nigro 

nigri 


niger,  black. 
niero-,  a-,  o- 

iiigra 

nigrae 

nigrae 

nigram 

nigra 

nigra 


nigrum 

nigri 

nigro 

nigrum 

nigrum 

nigro 


nigrae        nigra 


niisera 
<i.     miscrorum  mi.serarum  miscrorum  nigrorum  nigrarum  nigrorum 
I),    miseris  miscris         miseris         nigris         nigris         nigris 

Ac.  miscros        miseras        miscra  nigros        nigras        nigra 

V.     miscri  miserae        miscra         nigri  nigrae        ni^^ra 

Ab.  miseris         miseris         miseris        nigris         nigris        nigris 

Note.  —  Which  type  Ls  followed  is  shown  by  the  dictionary. 

a.  Stems  in  ero-  (as  procerus),  with  morigerus,  properus,  have 
the  regular  nominative  masculine  in  -us. 


r^ 


36 


ADJECTIVES. 


[§§  83.  84- 


83.  The  following  o-stems  with  their  compounds  have  the  geni- 
tive singular  in  -iua  (one  only  having  -lus)  and  the  dative  in  -i  in  all 
genders  :  — 

alius  (X.  aliud),  other,     totus,  whole,     alter,  -terius,  the  other. 
nullus,  710^  none.  iillus,  any.         neuter,  -trius,  neither. 

solus,  alone.  iinus,  one.  uter,  -trius,  which  (of  two). 

Of  these  the  singular  is  thus  declined  : —    • 


M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

NOM. 

iinus 

iina 

iinum 

uter 

utra 

Utrum 

Gkn. 

uniuB 

uniua 

unius 

u  trius 

utritiB 

utriuB 

DAT. 

uni 

uni 

uni 

utri 

utri 

ulri 

Ace. 

unum 

unam 

unum 

utrum 

utreim 

utnmi 

AUL. 

uno 

ijna 

uno 

utro 

utra 

utro 

NOM. 

alius 

alia 

aliud 

alter 

altera 

alterum 

Gen. 

alius 

alius 

alius 

alteriua 

al  terius 

aUcrius 

DAT. 

alii 

alii 

alii 

alteri 

alteri 

alteri 

Ace. 

alium 

aliam 

aliud 

altenim 

alteram 

altenim 

Abl. 

alio 

alia 

alio 

altero 

altera 

altero 

a.  The  plural  of  these  words  is  regular,  like  that  of  bonus. 

b.  The  i  of  the  genitive-ending  -ius,  may  be  short  in  verse. 
Instead  of  alius,  alterius  is  commonly  used,  or  in  the  possessive 

sense  the  adjective  alieuus,  belonging  to  another.,  another"^ s. 

I.-,  compounds  sometimes  both  parts  are  declined,  sometimes  only 
th:  latter.     Thus,  alteri  utri  or  altcrutii.  to  one  of  the  two. 

2.    Third  Declension. 

Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  are  of  o/tc,  tivoy  or 
three  terminations. 

84.    Adjectives  of   the   third  declension  having- stems 

in  i distinguished  by  h<i\\\g  f^arisyliabie  (§  53.  a)  —  have 

but  one  form  for  both  masculine  and  feminine,  with  one 
for  the  neuter,  and  hence  are  called  adjectives  of  two  ter- 
vtinations.     In  the  neuter  the  nominative  ends  in  -e. 


§84] 


THIRD   DECLENSION. 


37 


They  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 

levis  (stem  levi-),  light. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

M.,  F. 

N. 

M.,  F. 

N. 

N.,  V. 

levis 

leve 

leves 

levia 

Gen. 

levis 

levis 

leviimi 

levium 

DAT. 

levi 

levi 

levibus 

levibus 

Ace. 

levem 

leve 

levis  (es) 

levia 

Abl. 

levi 

levi 

levibus 

levibus 

a.  The  following  stems  in  ri-  have  a  masc.  nom.  in  -er;  acer, 
alacer.  campostor,  colobor,  oquostor,  palustcr,  podostor,  putor, 
saluber,  Silvester,  terrester,  volucer,  and  are  called  adjectives  of 
three  terminations.  So,  also,  celer,  celeris,  celere ;  and  names  of 
months  in  -ber  (cf.  §  51./^):  as,  October. 

These  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 

acer,  keen. 
Stem  acri- 


M. 

N.,  V.  acer 

Gen.  acris 

Dat.  acri 

Ace.  acrem 

Abl.  acri 


SINGULAR. 
K. 

acris 

acris 

acri 

acrem 

acri 


N. 

acre 

acris 

acri 

acre 

acri 


M. 

acres 

acrium 

acribuB 


PLURAL. 
F. 

acres 

acrium 

acribus 


N. 

acria 

acrium 

acrlbuB 


acris  (es)  acris  (es)  acria 
acribus       acribus       acribus 


NoTK.  —  This  formnlion  i.s  comparatively  late,  and  hence,  in  the  poets, 
cither  the  masculine  or  the  feminine  form  was  sometimes  used  for  both 
pcnders:  as,  coetus  alacris  (Aw//.).  In  others,  as  faenebris,  funebris, 
illustris,  lugubris,  mediocris,  muliebris,  there  is  no  separate  masculine 
form.     Thus,  — 

illuBtris,  brilliant. 


Stkm 

Ulostrl- 

SING 

ular. 

plural. 

M.,  K. 

N. 

M.,  F. 

N. 

N.,  V. 

illiistris 

illustre 

illiistres 

illiistria 

Gen. 

illustris 

illustris 

illustriumi 

illustrium 

Dat. 

illustri 

illustri 

illustribus 

illustribus 

Ace. 

illustrem 

illustre 

illustri8'(es) 

illustria 

Ahl. 

illustri 

illustri 

illustribus 

illustribus 

38 


ADJECTIVES. 


[§85- 


§85-] 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


39 


b.  Case-Forms.  —  Adjectives  of  two  and  three  terminations, 
being  true  i-stems,  retain  in  the  ablative  singular  -i,  in  the  neuter 
plural  -ia,  in  the  genitive  plural  -ium,  and  in  the  accusative  plural 
regularly  -is.     But  the  forms  of  some  are  doubtful. 

Note. —  An  ablative  in  -e  is  sometimes  found  in  poetry. 

c.  celer,  swift,  as  a  noun,  denoting  a  military  rank,  has  celenim 
in  the  genitive  plural.     The  name  Celer  has  the  ablative  in  -e. 

86.  The  remaining  adjectives  of  the  third  declension 
are  Consonant-stems  ;  but  all  except  Comparatives  have 
the  form  of  i-stems  in  the  ablative  singular  -i,  the  nomi- 
native, accusative,  and  vocative  plural  neuter  -ia,  and  the 
genitive  plural  -ium.  In  the  other  cases  they  follow  the 
rule  of  Consonant-stems. 

Note.  —  The  ablative  singular  of  these  words  often  has  -e. 

These  adjectives  (except  comparatives)  have  the  same  nominative 
singular  for  all  genders,  and  hence  are  called  adjectives  of  one  termina- 
tion. All  except  stems  in  1-  or  r-  form  the  nominative  singular  from 
the  stem  by  adding  -s. 

a.  Adjectives  of  one  termination  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


b.  Other  examples  are  the  following  :  — 


^Xib-x.,  fierce. 

egens, 

needy. 

Stem  atro< 

• 
* 

Stem 

egent- 

Sing. 

M.,  F. 

N. 

M.,  F. 

N. 

N.,  V. 

atioz 

atrox 

egens 

egens 

Gen. 

atrocis 

atrocis 

egentis 

egentis 

DAT. 

atroci 

atroci 

egenti 

egenti 

Ace. 

atr5cem 

atrox 

egentem 

egens 

Abl. 

atroci  (e) 

atroci  (e) 

egenti  (e) 

egenti  (e) 

Plur. 

• 

N.,  V. 

atrocis 

atrocia 

egentis 

egentia 

Gen. 

atr5cium 

atrocium 

egentium 

egentium 

DAT. 

atrocibus 

atrocibus 

egentibus 

egentibus 

Ace. 

atrocis  (is) 

atrocia 

egentis  (is) 

egentia 

Abl. 

atrocibus 

atrdcibus 

egentibus 

egentibus 

concors,  harmonious. 

Stem  concord- 


iins,  going. 
cunt- 


par,  equal. 
par- 


Sing. 

N.,  V. 
Gen. 

DAT. 

Ace. 
Abl. 
Plur. 
N.,  V. 

Gen. 


M.,  F. 

concors 

concordis 
concordi 
concordem 
concordi 


N. 

concors 

concordis 

concordi 

concors 

concordi 


M.,  F. 

iins 

euntis 

eunti 

euntem 


N. 

iins 

euntis 

eunti 

iens 


M.,  F. 

par 

paris 

pari 

parem 


eunte  (i)  eunte  (i)  pari 


concordis       concordia        euntis      euntia       pares 
concordJum    concordium    euntium    euntium    parium 


N. 

I»r 

pSris 
pari 
par 
pari 

paria 
parium 


D.  Abl.  concordibus    concordibus  euntibus  euntibus  paribus     paribus 
Ace.        concordis  (is)  concordia       euntis(is)  euntia       paris(es)  paria 


Sing. 

N.,  V. 
Gen. 

DAT. 

Ace. 
Abl. 
Plur. 
N.,  V, 
Gen. 


praeceps,  headlong. 
Stem  praecipit- 
M.,  F.  N. 

praeceps  praeceps 

praecipitis  praecipitis 

praecipiti  praecipiti 

praecipitem  praeceps 

praecipiti  praecipiti 


dives,  rich 
divit- 
M.,  F. 
dives 

divitis 
diviti 
divitem 
divite 


uber,  fertile. 
ai)er- 


N. 

dives 

divitis 
diviti 
dives 
divite 


M.,  F. 

uber 

uberis 

uberi 

uberem 

ijbere 


N. 

uber 

iiberis 

uberi 

uber 

ubere 


praecipitis      praecipitia 
[praecipitium]  ^ 


divitis      [ditia]       uberis       ubera 
divitum    divitum     uberum     uberum 
DT'ABL.praecipTtibusVraecipitibusdivitibus  divitibus  uberibus  uberibus 
Ace.         praecipitis(is)  praecipitia      dlvitis(is)  [divitia]   uberis       ubera 

vetus,  old. 
Stem  vcter-  (for  vetes  or  vetos-) 


N.,  V. 
Gen. 

DAT. 

Ace. 
Abl. 


SINGULAR 
M.,  F. 

vetus 

veteris 

veteri 

veterem 

vetere 

1  Given  by  grammarians,  but  not  found. 


N. 

vetus 

veteris 

veteri 

vetus 

vetere 


PLURAL. 
M.,  F. 

veteris 

veterum 

veteribus 

veteris 

veteribus 


N. 

Vetera 

veterum 

veteribus 

Vetera 

veteribus 


u 


40 


ADJECTIVES. 


[§§  86,  %T. 


Note.  —  Of  these  vetus  is  originally  an  s-stem.  In  most  s-stems  the  r 
has  intruded  itself  into  the  nominative  also,  as  bi-corpor  (for  bi-corpos), 
de-gener  (for  de-genes). 

c,  A  few  of  these  adjectives  used  as  nouns,  have  a  feminine  form 
in  -a :  as,  clienta,  hospita,  so  the  appellative  luno  Sospita. 

3.     Comparatives. 

86.    Comparatives  are  declined  as  follows: — 


melior,  better. 
Stbm  mellor-  for  melios- 


Sing. 

N.,  V. 
Gen. 

DAT. 

Ace. 
Abl. 
Plur. 
N.,  V. 
Gen. 

DAT. 

Ace. 
Abl. 


M.,  F. 

mellor 
melioris 
meliori 
meliorem 
melidre  (i) 

melioris 
meliorum 
melioribua 
melidria  (es) 
melidribus 


N. 

melius 
melioris 
meliori 
melius 
meliore  (i) 

meliora 

meliorum 

melioribus 

meliora 

melioribua 


plur 

M.J  F. 


plus,  more. 
for  plus- 


plures 
plurium 
pluribus 
pluris  (es) 
plOribus 


N. 

plus 
pluris 

plus 
plure 

plura 

plurium 

pluribus 

plura 

pluribus 


a.  The  stem  of  comparatives  properly  ended  in  os- ;  but  this  be- 
came or-  except  in  the  neuter  singular  (nom.,  ace,  voc),  where  a 
is  retained,  and  6  is  changed  to  ii  (cf.  honor,  corpus).  Thus  com- 
paratives appear  to  have  two  terminations. 

b.  The  neuter  singular  plus  is.  used  only  as  a  noun.  The  geni- 
tive (rarely  ablative)  is  used  as  an  expression  of  value  (cf.  §  252.  a). 
The  dative  is  not  found  in  classic  use.  The  compound  complures, 
several,  has  sometimes  neuter  plural  compluria. 

All  other  comparatives  are  declined  like  melior. 

4.     Case-Forms. 

87.  In  adjectives  of  Consonant  stems  the  following 
Case-forms  are  to  be  remarked :  — 

a.  The  ablative  singular  commonly  ends  in  -i;  but  adjectives 
used  as  nouns  (as  superstes,  survivor)  have  -e.     Participles  in  -na 


§88.] 


CASE-FORMS  AND  SPECIAL    USES. 


41 


used  as  such,   or  as   nouns,  regularly  have  -e;    but  when  used  as 

adjectives,  -i. 

The  following  have  uniformly  -i:  amens,  anceps,  concors  (and 
other  compounds  of  cor),  censors  (but  as  a  substantive,  -e,)  degener, 
hebes,  ingens,  inops,  memor  (and  its  compounds),  par  (in  prose), 
perpes,  praeceps,  praepes,  teres. 

b.  The  following  have  regularly  -e  :  caeles,  compos  [fdeses], 
dives,  hospes,  pauper,  particeps,  princeps,  superstes,  sospes ;  also 
patrials  (see  §  54.  3)  and  stems  in  at-,  it-,  nt-,  rt-,  when  used  as 
nouns,  and  sometimes  when  used  as  adjectives. 

c.  The  genitive  plural  ends  commonly  in  -ium.  The  accusative 
plural  regularly  ends  in  -is,  even  in  comparatives,  which  are  less  in- 
clined to  the  i-  declension. 

d.  The  genitive  plural  ends  in  -um :  — 

1 .  Always  in  dives,  compos,  inops,  particeps,  princeps,  praepes, 
supplex,  and  compounds  of  nouns  which  have  -um  :  as,  quadni-pes, 

bi-color. 

2.  Sometimes,  in  poetry,  in  participles  in  -ns :  as,  silentum  con- 
cilimn,  a  council  of  the  silent  shades  (Virg.). 

e.  In  vetus  (gen.  -eris),  pubes  (gen.  -eris),  uber  (gen.  -eris), 
which  did  not  become  i-stems,  the  endings  -e  (abl.  sing.),  -a  (neut. 
nom.  ace.  plur.),  -um  (gen.  plur.)  are  regular.     (Uber  has  also  -i  in 

abl.) 

/.   I .  Several    adjectives  vary    in  declension  :  as,  gracilis   (-us), 

hilaris  (-us),  inermis  (-us),  bicolor  (-orus). 

2.  A  few    are  indeclinable  :    as,  damnas,  frugi,  nequam. 

3.  Several  are  defective  :  as,  exspes  (only  nom.),  exlex,  exlegem 
(only  nom.  and  ace.  sing.),  pemox,  pemocte  (only  nom.  and  abl. 
sing.)  ;  primoris,  seminecis,  which   lack  the  nom.  sing. 


5.    Special  Uses. 

88.    The  following  special  uses  are  to  be  observed:  — 

a.  Many  adjectives  have  the  meaning  and  construction  of  nouns  : 
as,  amicus,  a  friend ;  aequalis,  a  contemporary  j  maiores,  ancestors. 

b.  Many  adjectives,  from  their  signification,  can  be  used  only 
in  the  masculine  and  feminine.  Such  are  adulescens,  youthful; 
[fdeses],  -idis,  slothful;  inops,  -opis,  poor;  sospes,  -itis,  safe. 
So,  senex,  old  man,  and  iuvenis, /^««^  man,  are  masculine  only. 


42 


ADJECTrVES. 


[§89- 


c.  Many  nouns  may  be  used  as  adjectives :  as,  pedes,  a  footman 
or  on  foot :  so  especially  nouns  in  -tor  (m.)  and  -trix  (p.,  also  as  x.), 
denoting  the  agent  :  as,  victor  exercitus,  the  conquering  army; 
victricia  arina,  victorious  arms. 

d.  Certain  forms  of  many  adjectives  are  regularly  used  as  adverbs. 
These  are  the  accusative  and  ablative  of  the  neuter  singular  :  as, 
multum,  multo.  much;  and  the  neuter  singular  of  compararives  : 
as,  melius,  better ;  levius,  more  lightly. 


COMPARISON. 

Latin,  as  English,  has  three  degrees  of  comparison  : 
the  Positive,  Comparative,  and  Superlative. 

I.    Regular  Comparison. 

89.  The  Comparative  is  formed  by  adding  -ior  (neuter 
-ius),  the  Superlative  by  adding  -issimus  (-a,  -urn)  to  the 
stem  of  the  Positive,  which  loses  its  final  vowel :    as,  — 

cams,  dear  (st.  caro-);    carior.  dearer;  carissimus,  dearest. 

aecus,  equal  {%\..  aequo) ;  aequior,  more  equal;  aequissimus,  most  equal. 
levis,  light  (St.  levi-);     levior,  lighter;         levissimus.  lightest. 
lilix,  happy  (st. felic-) :    feUcior,  happier;     felicisaimus,  happiest. 
hebes,^////(st.hebet-);   hebetdor.  ^i///^ry     hebetissimus,  ^/«//^x/. 

a.  Adjectives  in  -er  form  the  superlative  by  adding  -rimus  to  the 
nominative.     The  comparative  is  regular  :  as, 

acer,  keen;  acrior,  acerximus. 

miser,  wretched;  miserior,  miserrimus. 

So  vetus  (gen.   veteris)  veterrimus ;    and  matunis,  besides  its 
regular  superlative  (maturissimus)  has  a  rare  form  maturrimus. 
For  the  comparative  of  vetus,  vetustior  (from  vetustus),  is  used. 

b.  The  following  in  -lis  add  -limus  to  the  stem  clipped  of  its  vowel : 
facilis  (St.  facili-),  difficilis,  similis,  dissimilis,  gracilis,  humilis. 
The  comparative  is  regular  :  as,  facilis,  facilior,  facillimus. 

c.  Compounds  in  -dicus  {saying),  -ficus  {doing),  -volus  {willing) 
take  in  comparison  the  forms  of  corresponding  participles  in-ns:  as,— 

maledicua,  slanderous;  maledicentior,  maledicentissimus. 
malevolua,  spiteful;  malevolentior,  malevolentisaimus. 


§§90,91.]    IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE  COMPARISON.    43 

d.  Adjectives  in  -us  preceded  by  a  vowel  rarely  have  forms  of  com- 
parison, but  take  the  adverbs  magis,  more ;  maxime,  most:  as, — 

idoneus,  fit ;  magis  idoneus,  maxime  idoneus. 

So,  also,  most  derivatives  in  -icus,  -idus,  -alis,  -aris,  -ilis,  -ulus, 
-undus,  -timus,  -inus,  -ivus,  -orus,  with  many  compounds  (as  degener, 
inops)  take  magis  and  mazime. 

e.  Participles  used  as  adjectives  are  regularly  compared  :  as,  — 

patiens,  patient;  patientior,  patientissimus. 
apeitus,  open  ;  apertior,  apertissimus. 

/.  A  form  of  diminutive  is  made  upon  the  stem  of  some  compara- 
tives :  as,  grandius-culus,  a  little  larger  (see  §  164.  a). 

9.    Irregular  and  Defective  Comparison. 

90.  Several  adjectives  have  in  their  comparison  irregu- 
lar forms  :  as,  — 

bonus,  melior,  optdinus,  good,  better,  best. 
malus,  peior,  pessimus,  bad,  worse,  worst. 
magnus,  maior.  maximus,  great,  greater,  greatest. 
parvus,  minor,  minimus,  small,  less,  least. 
multus,  plus  (N.),  pluiimus,  fnuch,  more,  most. 
multi,  plures,  plurimi  many,  more,  most. 
nequam  (indecl.),  nequicr,  nequissimus,  worthless. 
Irugi  (indecl.),  frugaUor,  fiugaUssimus,  useful,  worthy. 
dexter,  dexterior,  dextimus,  on  the  right,  handy. 

Note.  — These   irregularities   arise  from  the   use  of  different  stems. 

91.  Some  Comparatives  and  Superlatives  appear  with- 
out a  Positive  :  — 

a.  The  following  are  formed  from  stems  not  used  as  adjectives  :  — 

ciB.  citri  (adv.  on  this  side)  :  citerior.  citimus.  hither,  hither  most. 
in,  intra  (prep,  in,  within)  :  interior,  intimus,  inner,  inmost. 
prae,  pro  (prep,  before)  :  prior,  primus,  former,  first. 
prope  (adv.  near)  :  propior,  proximus,  nearer,  next. 
ultra  (adv.  beyond)  :  ulterior,  ultimua,  farther,  farthest. 


44 


\ 


DJECTfVES. 


[§92. 


b.  Of  the  following  the  positives  are  rare,  except  as  nouns  :  — 

externa,     exterior,    extremus  (extimus),  outer,  outmost. 
[inferus],     inferior,     infimus  (imus),  lower,  lowest  (§  82.  d). 
[posterns],  posterior,  postremus  (postumus),  latter,  last. 
[superus],  superior,    supremus  or  summus,  /uglier,  highest. 

But  the  plurals  exteri,/^r^/;^«^;'jy  uiiexi,  the  gods  below ;  posteri, 
posterity  ;  superi,  the  heavenly  gods,  are  common. 

c.  From  iuvenis,  youth,  senex,  old  man  are  formed  iunior 
younger,  senior,  older.  For  these  minor  natu  and  maior  natu  are 
sometimes  used  (natu  being  often  omitted).  The  superlative  is 
regularly  expressed  by  minimus  and  maximus,  with  or  without  natu. 

d.  In  the  following,  one  or  other  of  the  forms  of  comparison  is 
wanting  :  — 

1.  The  positive  is  wanting  in  deterior.  deterrimus;  ocior,  ocis- 
simus;  potior,  potissimus. 

2.  The  comparative  is  wanting  in  beUus,  caesius,  falsus,  fidua 
(with  its  compounds),  inclutus,  invictus,  invitus,  novus,  pius,  sacer, 
vafer,  vetua  (§  89.  a). 

3'  The  superlative  is  wanting  in  agrestis,  alacer,  arcanus,  caecus. 
diuturnus,  exiUs,  ingens,  ieiunus,  longincus,  oblicus,  ojnmus, 
procUvis,  propincus,  satur,  segnis,  aerus,  supinus,  surdua,  tacitur- 
nua,  tempeativua,  teres,  vicinua,  and  in  some  adjectives  in  -TUb. 

Note.  —  Many  adjectives  —as  aureus,  golden  —  are  from  their  meaning 
mcapable  of  comparison  ;  but  each  language  has  its  own  usage. 

3.    Comparison  of  Adverbs. 

92.  The  comparative  of  an  Adverb  is  the  neuter  accusa- 
tive of  the  comparative  of  the  corresponding  Adjective  ; 
the  superlative  is  the  Adverb  in  -e  formed  regularly  from* 
the  superlative  of  the  Adjective  :  as,  — 

care,  dearly  (from  cams,  dear)  ;  carlus,  carissime. 

misere,  wretchedly  (from  miser,  wretched)  ;  miserius,  miserrime. 

leviter  (from  levis,  light);  levins,  levissime. 

audacter  (audaciter)  (from  audax.  bold);  audScius.  audaciaaime. 

bene,  luell  (from  bonua,  good) ;  meliua,  optime. 

male,  ill  (from  malus,  bad) ;  peiua,  peaaime. 

antique,  anciently,  (from  anticua),  antiquiua,  antiquiaaime. 


§93-] 


SIGXItICA  TION. 


45 


The  following  are  irregular  or  defective  :  — 

diu,  long  (in  time)  ;  diutiua,  diutissime. 

potius,  rather ;  potiaaimum, /rj/  of  all,  in  preference  to  all. 

aaepe,  often;  saepiua,  oftener,  again;  aaepiaaime. 

aatis,  enough  ;  satius,  preferable. 

aecua,  otherwise;  aeciua,  worse. 

multum  (multo),  magia,  maxime,  much,  more,  most. 

parum,  not  enough,  minua,  less,  minimi,  least. 


4.    Signification.  \ 

93.  Besides  their  regular  signification  (as  in  English), 
the  forms  of  comparison  are  used  as  follows  :  — 

a.  The  Comparative  denotes  a  considerable  or  excessive  degree  of  a 
quality  :  as,  brevior,  rather  short;  audacior,  too  bold. 

b.  The  Superlative  {of  eminence)  may  denote  a  ver^  high  degree 
of  a  quality  with  no  distinct  comparison,  often  strengthened  by 
quam,  vel,  or  unua :  as,  maximus  numerua,  a  very  great  number,-^ 
quam  plurimi,  as  many  as  possible ;  quam  maxime  poteat  (maxime 
quam  poteat),  as  much  as  can  be;  virum  unum  doctissimum,  the 

one  most  learned  man. 

c.  With  quisque,  each,  the  superlative  has  a  peculiar  signification. 
Thus  the  phrase  ditissimus  quisque  means,  all  the  richest  (each 
richest  man)  ;  primus  quisque,  all  the  first  {each  first  man  in  his 
order).i     Two  superlatives  with  quisque  imply  a  proportion  :  as,  — 

sapientissimus    quisque   aaguissimo  aplmo  BdoriUr  (Cat.   Maj. 
83),  the  wisest  men  die  with  the  greatest  ^uanimity. 

d  A  high  degree  of  a  quality  is  also  denoted  by  such  adverbs  as 
admodum.  valde.  very,  or  by  per  or  prae  in  composition  :  as,  valde 
malus,  very  bad  ;  permagnus,  very  great ;  praealtus,  very  high. 

e  A  low  degree  of  a  quality  is  indicated  by  sub  in  composition  (as, 
subrusticus,  rather  clownish):  or  by  minus,  not  very;  minime,  not 
at  all;  parum,  fiot  enough;  non  satis,  not  much. 

1  As  in  taking  things  one  by  one  o(T  a  pile,  each  thing  is  uppermost  when 
you  take  it. 


( 


46 


ADJECTIVES, 


[§94- 


NUMERALS. 
I.    Cardinal  and  Ordinal. 

94.  Cardinal  numbers  are  the  regular  numbers  used  in 
counting.  Ordinal  numbers  are  adjectives  derived  from 
these  to  express  order  or  place. 

Note.  -  Cardinal  numbers  answer  the  question  quot?  h<rw  many? 
Ordinal  numbers,  the  question  quotus  ?  which  in  ora.  -?  one  of  how  many  / 

These  two  series  are  as  follows :  — 

ROMAN 
ORDINAL.  NUMERALS. 


I. 
2. 

3- 


CARDINAL. 

unus,  una,  unum,  one. 
duo,  duae,  duo,  two, 
tres,  tria,  y^/-£^_  ,..  ^ 


4.  quattuor  (quatuor) 

5.  quinque 

6.  sex 
7-  septem 

8.  octo 

9.  novem 

10.  decej 

11.  undecim 

12.  duodecim 

13.  tredecim  (decern  et  tres) 

14.  quattuordecim 

15.  quTndecim 

16.  sedecim 

17.  septendecim 

18.  duodevTgintI  (octodecim) 

19.  undevigintl  (novendecim) 

20.  viginti 

21.  vlginti  unus 

{or  unus  et  viginti) 
30.  triginta 
40.  quadraginta 
50.  quinquaginta 
60.  sexaginta 
70.  septuaginta 


primus,  -a,  -\xxi\,jirst. 

secundus  (alter),  second, 

tertius,  third. 

quartus 

quTntus 

sextus 

Septimus 

octavus 

nonus 

decimus 

undecimus 

duodecimus 

tertius  decimus 

quartus  decimus 

quintus  decimus 

sextus  decimus 

Septimus  decimus 

duodevicensimus 

undevlcensimus 

vicensimus  (vigensimus) 

vTcensimus  primus 

(unus  et  vicensimus,  etc) 
tricensimus 
quadragensimus 
quinquagensimus 
sexagensimus 
septuagensimus 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 
V. 
VI. 
VII. 
VIII. 
IX. 
X. 
XI. 
XII. 
XIII. 
XIV. 
XV. 
XVI. 
XVII. 
XVIII. 
XIX. 
XX. 
XXI. 

XXX. 

XL. 
L. 

LX. 
LXX. 


§94.] 


NUMERALS. 


47 


CARDINAL. 

80.  octoginta 
90.  nonaginta 

100.  centum 

1 01.  centum  (et)  unus,  etc. 
200.  ducenti,  -ae,  -a 

300.  trecenti 

400.  quadringenti 

500.  quingenti 

600.  sexcenti  (sescentl) 

700.  septingenti 

800.  octingentT 

900.  nongenti 
1000.  mille 

5000.  quinque  milia  (millia) 
10,000.  decem  milia  (millia) 
100,000.  centum  milia  (millia) 


ORDINAL. 


ROMAN    NUMERALS. 


octogensimus  lxxx. 

nonagensimus-  xc. 

centensimus  c. 

centensimus  primus,  etc.  ci. 

ducentensimus  cc. 

trecentensimus  ccc. 

quadringentensimus  CCCC. 

quingentensimus  13,  or  d. 

sexcentensimus  DC. 

septingentensimus  DCC. 

octingentensimus  DCCC. 

nongentensimus  DCCCC. 

millensimus  cio,  or  vl. 

quinquiens  millensimus  133. 

deciens  millensimus  cciod. 

centiens  millensimus  ccciooo. 


Note.  —  The  forms  in  -ensimus  are  often  written  without  the  n:  as, 
vicesimus,  etc. 

a.  For  the  inflection  of  unus,  see  §^83^  It  often  has  the  meaning 
of  same  or  only.  The  plural  is  used  in  this  sense  ;  but  also,  as  a 
simple  numeral,  with  a  plural  noun  of  a  singular  meaning  :  as,  una 
castra,  one  camp  (cf.  §  95.  b).  The  plural  occurs  also  in  the  phrase 
uni  et  alteri,  one  party  and  the  other  (the  ones  and  the  others). 

b.  Duo,  two^  and  ambo,  both,  are  thus  declined  :  — 


NOM. 

duo 

duae 

duo 

Gen. 

fiuorum 

duarum 

duorum 

DAT. 

duobus 

duabua 

duobus 

Acc. 

4uos  (duo) 

duas 

duo 

Abl. 

iuobus 

duabus 

duobus 

c.  Tres,  tria,  ///>yf ,  i^  an  i-stem,  and  is  regularly  declined  like  the 
plural  of  levis  (^  §  84V  The  other  cardinal  numbers,  up  to  cen- 
tum (100),  are  inuechflSmle. 

The  forms  octodecim,  novendecim  are  rare,  duode viginti,  un- 
devigintl being  used  instead.  Similar  forms  for  higher  numbers  are 
occasionally  found  :  as,  duodequadraginta,  thirty-eight ;  iindecen- 
tum,  ninety-nine.        j 


48 


ADJECTIVES. 


[§95- 


d.  The  hundreds,  up  to-  looo,  are  o-stems,  and  are  regularly  de- 
clined like  the  plural  of  bonu& 

e.  Mille,  a  thousand,  is  in  the  singular  an  indeclinable  adjective. 
In  the  plural  (milia  or  millia,  thousands),  it  is  a  neuter  noun,  followed 
by  a  genitive  plural.  Thus,  cum  miUe  homlnibus,  with  a  thousand 
men;  but  cum  duobus  milibus  hominum,  with  two  thousand  men. 

Note.  —  The  singular  mille  is  sometimes  found  as  a  noun  in  the  nomi- 
native and  accusadve  :  as  mille  hominum  misit ;  rarely  in  the  other  cases. 

/.  The  ordinals  are  o-stems,  and  are  declined  like  bonus. 


2.     Distributives. 


95.    Distributive  Numerals  are  declined  like  the  plural 

of   bonus. 

Note.  —  These  answer  the  question  quoteni  ?  how  many  of  each,  or  at  a 
time?  as, — 


1 .  sTngulT,  one  by  one 

2.  bini,  two-and-two. 

3.  temi,  trim 

4.  quatemi 

5.  quini 

6.  sen! 

7.  septeni 

8.  octonT 

9.  noveni 

10.  deni 

1 1 .  undeni 

12.  duodeni 

13.  term  deni,  etc. 


18.  octonT  deni  or 

duodeviceni 

19.  noveni  deni  or 

undeviceni 

20.  vTcenI 


100.  centeni 
200.  duceni 
300.  treceni 
400.  quadringeni 
500.  quingeni 


21.  viceni  singuh,  ^/^.    600.  sesceni 

30.  triceni  700.  septingeni 

40.  quadrageni 

50.  quinquageni 

60.  sexageni 

70.  septuageni 

80.  octogenl 


800.  octingeni 
900.  nongeni 
1000.  millenl 
2000.   bina  milia 
10,000.  dena  milia 
100,000.  centena  milia 


90.  nonageni 

Distributives  are  used  as  follows  :  — 

a.  In  the  sense  of  so  many  apiece  or  on  each  side :  as,  singula 
singulis,  one  apiece  (one  each  to  each  one)  :  agri  septena  iugera 
plebi  divisa  sunt,  i.e.  seven  jugera  to  each  citizen,  etc. 

b.  Instead  of  cardinals,  to  express  simple  number,  with  a  noun 
plural  in  form  but  singular  in  meaning  :  as,  bina  castra.  two  camps 
(duo  castra  would  mean  two  forts).  But  the  plural  uni  is  used 
(instead  of  singuli)  to  signify  one  (see  §  94.  a),  and  trini  (not  temi) 
for  three. 


§§  96,  97] 


NUMERAL   ADVERBS. 


Ar9 


c.  In  multiplication  :  as,  bis  bina,  twice  twoj  ter  septeuis  dlebus, 
in  thrice  seven  days. 

d.  By  the  poets  freely  instead   of   cardinals,  particularly  where 
pairs  or  sets  are  meant :  as,  bina  hastilia  two  shafts  (two  in  a  set). 

3.     Numeral  Adverbs. 

96 .  The  Numeral  Adverbs  answer  the  question quotiens  (quoties), 
how  many  times,  how  often. 

1 .  semel,  once.  1 2.  duodeciens 

2.  bis,  twice.  13.  terdeciens 

3.  ter,  thrice.  14-  quaterdeciSns 

4.  quater  15.  quindeciens 

5.  quinquiens  (-es)    16.  sedeciens 

6.  sexiens  (-es)  1 7-  septiesdeciens 

18.  duodevlciens 

19.  undeviciens 

20.  viciens 


7.  septiens  (-es) 

8.  octiens 

9.  noviens 

10.  deciens 

11.  undeciens 


40.  quadragiens 

50.  quinquagiens 

60.  sexagiens 

70.  septuagiens 

80.  octdgiens 

90.  ndnagiens 

100.  centiens 

200.  ducentiens 

300.  trecentiens 


21.  semel  et  viciens,  etc.  1000.  mlliens 

30.  trlciens  10,000.  deciens  mlliens 


Note.  —  They  are  used,  in  combination  with  mille,  to  express  the  higher 
numbers  :  as,  ter  et  triciens  (centena  milia)  sestertium,  3,300,000  sesterces. 
Forms  in  -ns  are  often  written  without  the  n  :  as,  quinquies. 

4.     Other  Numerals. 

97.  The  adjectives  simplex,  single,  duplex,  double,  two-fold, 
triplex,  quadru-,  quincu-,  septem-,  decem-,  centu-,  sesqui-  (i^), 
multi-plex,  manifold,  are  called  Multiplicatives. 

a.  Proportionals  are  :  duplus,  triplus,  etc.,  twice  as  great,  etc. 

b.  Temporals  :  bimus,  trimus,  of  two  or  three  years'*  age; 
biennis,  triennis,  lasting  two  or  three  years ;  bimestris,  of  two 
months  ;  biduum,  biennium,  a  period  of  two  days  or  years. 

c.  Partitives  :  binarius,  ternarius,  of  two  or  three  parts. 

d.  Fractions  :  dimidia  pars,  a  half;  tertia  pars,  a  third. 

Note.  —  But  fractions  are  regularly  expressed  by  special  words  denoting 
the  parts  of  the  as  ( pound  or  unit) :   as,  triens,  a  third  ;  bes,  two-thirds. 

e.  Other  derivatives  are  :  unio,  unity ;  binio,  the  two  (of  dice)  ; 
primanus,  of  the  first  legion  ;  primarius,  of  the  first  rank;  denarius, 
a  sum  of  10  asses ;  binus  (distributive),  double,  etc. 


50 


PHONO  UA'S. 


5.     PRONOUNS. 


[§9S. 


98.    Pronouns  have  special  forms  of  declension. 


I.     Personal  Pronouns. 


The  Personal  pronouns  of  \\\\z  first  person  arc  ego,  /,  uob,  we;  of 
the  second  person^  tu,  thou^  vos,  ye  or  you. 


FIRST    I'EKSON. 


NOM. 

Gen. 

DAT. 

Acc. 
Voc. 
Abl. 


ego,  /.  1108,  we. 

mei,  of  me.  noatrum  (-tri),  of  us. 

mihi  (mi),  to  vie.  uobia,  to  us. 

me,  inc.  noa,  us. 


me,  by  me. 


nobis,  by  us. 


SKCOND    riiRSON. 


NOM. 

tu,  thou 

or 

you. 

vo^  ye  or  you. 

Gen. 

tui. 

vostriim,  vostri ;  veatrum  (-tri) 

DAT. 

tibi 

vobia 

Acc. 

te 

voa 

Voc. 

tu 

voa 

Abl. 

te 

vobia 

a.  The  personal  pronouns  of  the  third  person  —  he^  she^  it^  they  — 
are  wanting  in  Latin,  a  demonstrative  being  used  for  them  when 
required. 

//.  The  plural  noa  is  often  used   for   the  singular  ego;  the  plural 


vos  never  for  the  singular  tu. 


2.     Reflexive  Pronouns. 

Reflexive  pronouns  are  used  in  the  Oblique  Cases  to  refer  to  the 
Subject  of  the  sentence  or  clause  (see  §  196). 

a.  In  the  first  and  second  persons  the  oblique  cases  of  the  Personal 
pronouns  are  used  as  Reflexives  :  as,  te  laudaa,  you  praise  yourself ; 
nobia  perauademua,  we  persuade  ourselves. 


§99] 


POSSESSIVE   PRONOUNS. 


51 


b.  The  reflexive  pronoun  of  the  Third  Person  has  a  special  form 
the  same  for  both  singular  and  plural.     It  is  thus  declined  :  — 
(Jkn.    Bui,  of  himself  herself  themselves. 
DAT.    sibi.  to  himself  herself  themselves. 
Acc.     ae  (aeae),  himself  herself  themselves. 
Abl.     ae  (aeae),  by  (etc.)  himself  herself  themselves. 

3-     Possessive  Pronouns. 

The  Possessive  pronouns  are,  for  the  first  person  :  meua.  my 
noater,  our;  for  the  second  person  :  tuua.  thy,  your,  voater,  veater' 
your;  for  the  third  person  :  auua.  his,  her,  their.  These  are  de- 
clined like  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions  (see  §§  81 
82).  But  meua  has  regularly  mi  (rarely  meua)  in  the  vocative 
singular  masculine. 

NoTK.  —  Suus  is  always  reflexive,  referring  to  the  subject.  For  a  pos- 
sessive pronoun  of  the  third  person  not  referring  to  the  subject,  the  genitive 
of  a  demonstrative  must  be  used.  Thus,  patrem  suum  occidit.  //.  killed  his 
(ow•n)//M^.r;  but  patrem  eius  occidit,  be  killed  his  (somel>ody  else's) ////;^r. 

99.  In  the  meaning  and  use  of  the  Personal,  Reflexive, 
and  Possessive  pronouns  it  is  to  be  observed  that  — - 

a.  To  express  Possession  and  similar  ideas  the  po.sscssive  pro- 
nouns must  be  used,  not  the  genitive  of  the  personal  or  reflexive 
pronouns.     Thu.s,  my  father  is  pater  meua,  never  pater  mei 

b.  The  forms  noatrum,  voatrum,  etc.,  are  used  partitively :  as, — 

unuaquiaque  noatrum,  each  one  of  us  ; 
but  also  voatriim  omnium,  of  all  of  you. 

c.  The  genitives  mei.  tui,   sui,   noatri.  veatri  are  chiefly  used  ob- 
jectively (see  {j  213.  N.)  :  as,— 

memor  aia  nostri,  be  mindful  of  us  (me). 
me  tui  pudet,  /  am  ashamed  of  vou. 

d  The  reci])rocals  one  another  and  each  other  are  expressed  by 
inter  ae  or  alter  .  .  .  alterum  :  a.s,  — 

alter  alteriua  ova  frangit,  they  break  each  other's  e^^s  (one 

of  the  other), 
inter  ae  amant,  they  love  one  another. 


A 


52 


PRONOUNS. 


[§§  lOO,   lOI. 


e.  The  preposition  cum,  with,  is  joined  with  the  ablative  of  the 
personal  and  reflexive  pronouns  :  as,  tecum  loquitur,  he  talks  with 
you. 

f.  To  the  personal  and  reflexive  (and  sometimes  to  the  possessive) 
pronoupy.  certain  enclitics  are  joined  for  emphasis  :  -met  to  all 
except  tu  (nom.)  ;  -te  to  tu  (tute,  also  tutimet)  ;  -pte  to  the  ablative 
singular  of  the  adjectives,  and  in  early  Latin  to  the  others,  as,  — 

vosmetipsos  proditia,  you  betray  your  own  7tcry  selves. 
Buopte  pondere,  by  its  own  lueii^^/it. 

4.     Oenionstrntive  Pronouns. 

100.  The  Demonstrative  pronouns  are  hie,  this;  is,  llle,  iate, 
that;  with  the  Intensive  ipse,  self,  and  idem,  same. 

a.  llle  is  a  later  form  of  ollus  (olle),  which  is  sometimes  used 
in  poetry  ;  a  genitive  singular  in  -i,  -ae,  -i  occurs  in  ille  and  iste. 

b.  Hie  is  compounded  of  the  stem  ho-  with  the  demonstrative  -ce. 
In  most  of  the  forms  final  e  is  dropped,  in  some  the  whole  termina- 
tion. But  in  these  latter  it  is  sometimes  retained  for  emphasis  ;  as, 
huiua-ce.  hia-ce.     Idem  is  the  demonstrative  la  with  the  afllx  -dem. 

101.  The  demonstratives  are  used  cither  7vit/i  noutts 
as  Adjectives,  or  alone  as  Pronouns.  From  their  siirnifi- 
cation  they  cannot  (except  ipse)  have  a  vocative.  They 
are  thur  declined  :  — 


Sing. 

No.M. 
Gkn. 

DAT. 

Acc. 

AllL. 

Plur. 
Nom. 
Gen. 

DAT. 

Acc. 
Abl. 


hic 

huiua 

huic 

huiic 

hoc 

hi 

hcnim 

his 

hos 

his 


hic.  this. 

F. 

haec 

huiua 

huic 

hanc 

hac 

hae 

harum 

hia 

haa 

hia 


hoc 

hiiius 

huic 

hoc 

hoc 

haec 

horum 

hia 

haec 

hia 


M. 

is 

eiua 

ei 

eum 

eo 


is,  that. 

F. 

ea 

eiua 

ei 

eam 

ea 


N. 

Id 

eiua 
ei 
id 
eo 


i  (ei)  eae  ea 

eonun  eanmi  eormn 

eis  (ia)  eia  (ia)  eia  (is) 

eos  eaa  ea 

eia  (ia)  eia  (ia)  eia  (is) 


Sing. 
Nom. 

(iKN. 
DAT. 

Acc. 

Voc. 

Abl. 

Plur. 

Nom. 

Gkn. 

DAT. 

Acc. 
Voc. 
Abl. 


DEMONSTRATiyE  PRONOUNS. 


S3 


ille 
illiua 
iUi 
ilium 

iUo 

illi 

illorum 
illia 
illoa 


ille,  that. 

ilia 
illiua 
illi 
iUam 


ilia 

illae 
ill  arum 
illis 
illaa 


illud 
illiua 
illi 
illud 

illo 

ilia 

illorum 
mia 
iUa 


ipse,  self. 

ipse  ipsa 

ipaiua  ipsius 

ipai  ipsi 

ipaum  ipaam 

ipse  ipsa 

ipao  ipsa 


ipsum 

ipsius 

ipsi 

ipsum 

ipaum 

ipso 


illis 


illis 


mis 


ipsi  ipsae        ipsa 

ipsonim   ipaarum  ipaorum 
ipaia  ipais         ipsis 

ipaoa         ipaaa         ipsa 
ipai  ipaae        ipaa 

ipais         ipsis         ipsis 


idem,  the  same 

SINGULAR. 

N.     idem        eadem     idem 
G.     eiuadem  eiuadera  eiuadem 
D.     eidem      eidem      eidem 
Ac.  eimdom  eaiidem   idem 
Ab.  eodem     eadem     eodem 


PLURAL. 

dem  (ei-)  eaedem        eadem 
ieoruiidem   eanmdem    eorundem 
ei8dcm(ia-)  ei8dem(is-)  ei8dem(i8-) 
eosdem        easdem        eadem 
eisdem(is-)  eiadem(ia-)  eiadem(i8-) 

iste,  ista,  iatud,  that  (yonder),  is  declined  like  ille. 

nie  and  iate  are  combined  with  the  demonstrative  -ce.     Thus,  — 


Sing.        m.           f.  n. 

Nom.      illic      illaec  illoc  (illuc) 

Acc.       illunc  illanc  illoc  (illuc) 

Abl.       illoc     iliac  iUoc 

Plur. 

N.,Acc. iUaec 


M.  F. 

iatic  iataec 

iatuiic  iataiic 

iatoc  iatac 


N. 

iatoc  (iatuc) 
iatoc  (istiic) 
istoc 

iataec 


Note.  —  This  appended -ce  is  also  found  with  pronouns  in  numerous 
comhmations:  as,  huiusce,  hunce,  horunce,  harunce,  hosce,  hisce  (cf.  §  100.  b), 
ilhusce,  isce;  also  with  the  interrogative  -ne,  in  hocine,  hoscine,  istucine, 
ilhcine,  etc.     The  intensive  -pse  is  found  in  the  forms  eapse  (nom.),  eumpse 
eampse,  copse,  eapse  (abl.).  * 

a.  The  combinations  huiuamodi  (hiiiuacemodi),  eiusmodi,  etc., 
are  used  as  indeclinable  adjectives,  equivalent  to  taUs,  such  :  as,  res 
emsmodi.  such  a  thing  (a  thing  of  th.at  .sort  ;  cf.  §  215). 


!if 


FE 'T—  *  «— 


54 


PRONOUNS. 


[§§  102,  103. 


102.  In  the  use  of  these  demonstratives  it  is  to  be 
observed  that  — 

a.  Hie  is  used  of  what  is  near  the  speaker  (in  time,  place,  thought, 
or  on  the  written  page).  It  is  sometimes  used  of  the  speaker  him- 
self  ;  sometimes  for  "the  latter"  of  two  persons  or  things  mentioned 
in  speech  or  writing  ;  more  rarely  for  "the  former,"  when  that,  though 
more  remote  on  the  written  paj^e,  is  nearer  the  speaker  in  t/n/e,  p/al:e, 
or  thought. 

b.  lUe  is  used  of  what  is  remote  (in  time,  etc.).  It  is  sometimes 
used  to  mean  "the  former"  (see  under  hie,  «)  ;  also  (usually  fol- 
lowing its  noun)  of  what  \s famous  or  wellkmnvn. 

c.  late  is  used  of  what  is  between  the  two  others  in  remoteness  : 
often  in  allusion  to  the  person  addressed,  —  l>cncc  called  the  demon- 
strative of  the  second  person.  It  especially  refers  to  an  opponent, 
and  frequently  implies  a  kind  of  antagonism  or  contempt. 

d.  Is  is  a  weaker  demonstrative  than  the  others  and  does  not 
denote  any  special  object,  but  refers  to  one  just  mentioned,  or  to  be 
afterwards  explained  by  a  relative.  It  is  used  oftener  than  the, 
others  as  a  personal  pronoun  ;  and  is  often  merely  a  correlative  to 
the  relative  qui:  as,  euni  quern,  one  whom;  eum  coiisulem  qui  non 
dubitet  (Cic),  a  consul  who  will  not  hesitate. 

e.  Ipse  may  be  used  with  a  personal  pronoun  of  either  person,  or 
a  noun  :  as  110a  ipsi  (nosmetipsi),  ive  ourselves;  ipsi  fontes,  the  very 
fountains;  also  independently  (the  verb  or  the  context  implying  the 
pronoun),  as  ipsi  ade8tia,jf>// ar<r^f7//rj<r/7w//rji-///. 

Note.— I  a  English,  the  pronouns  himself  etc.,  are  used  both  inten- 
sively (as,  he  toiil  come  himself)  and  reflexively  (as.  he  will  kill  himself)  : 
in  Latin  the  former  would  he    ipse ;  ihc  latter,  se  or  s§se. 

/  The  prjnouns  hie,  iUe,  and  is  are  used  to  point  in  either  direc- 
tion, back  to  something  mentioned  or  forward  to  something  to  be 
mentioned.  The  neuter  forms  are  used  to  refer  to  a  clause,  phrase, 
or  idea  :  as,  est  illud  quidem  vel  majomimi  aiiiiniiiu  videre  (Tusc. 
i.  22,  52),  that  is  in  truth  a  very  great  thing,  to  see  the  soul. 

5.    Relative  Pronouns. 

103.  The  relative  pronoun  qui,  who,  which,  is  thus  de- 
clined:— 


§  1 04. J 


INTERROGA  TIVE   PRONOUNS. 


55 


SINC.UL.AR. 

PLURAL. 

NOM. 

qui 

quae 

quod 

qui 

quae 

quae 

Ghn. 

eiiius 

cuius 

cuius 

quorum 

quarum 

quorum 

DAT. 

eui 

eui 

eui 

qi^ibus 

quibuB 

quibus 

Act. 

quem 

quam 

quod 

quos 

quia 

quae 

Ahl. 

quo 

qua 

quo 

quibus 

quibus 

quibua 

6.     Interrogative  and  Indefinite  Pronouns. 

104.    The    interrogative   or   indefinite  quis  (qui),  who? 
which?  any,  is  declined  in  the  singular  as  follows:  — 


quid  (quod) 

ciiiua 

eui 

quid  (quod) 

quo 

The  singular  quia 


NoM.  quis  (qui)  quno 

Gkn.  ciiiua  ciiiua 

Dat.  eui  eui 

Acc.  quem  quam 

Abl.  qu5  qua 

The  plural  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Relative, 
is  rare  as  an  indefinite  (see  §  105.  d). 

» 

Note.  — The  Relative.  Interrogative,  and  Indefinite  Pronouns  arc 
originally  of  the  same  .Stem,  and  most  of  the  forms  are  the  same. 

Case-For.ms. — a.  The  relative  has  always  qui,  quae,  quod.  The 
interrogative  and  indefinite  have  quia,  quae,  quid,  substantive,  and 
qui,  quae,  quod,  adjective :  as,  quis  voeat  ?  who  calls  f  quid  videa  ? 
what  do  you  see  ?  c^yjl  homo  voeat?  what  man  calls?  quod  tem- 
plum  vides  ?  what  temple  do  you  sect 

Note,— Hut  qui  is  often  used  without  any  apparent  adjective  force ; 
and  quis  is  very  common  as  an  adjective,  especially  with  words  denoting  a 
person  :  as,  qui  nominat  me  ?  who  calls  my  name  ?  quis  dies  fuit?  what  day 
was  it?  quis  homo  ?  what  man  ?  but  often  qui  homo  ?  what  sort  of  a  man  ? 
nescio  qui  sis,  I  know  not  who  you  are. 

b.  Old  forms  for  the  genitive  and  dative  are  quoiua,  quoi 

c.  The  form  qui  is  used  for  the  ablative  of  both  numbers  and  all 
genders  ;  but  especially  as  an  adverb  {how,  by  which  way,  in  any 
way),  and  in  the  combination  quieum,  with  whom,  as  an  interroga- 
tive or  an  indefinite  relative. 

d.  A  dative  and  ablative  plur.  quia  is  old,  but  not  infrequent. 

e.  The  preposition  cum  is  joined  to  all  forms  of  the  ablative,  as 
with  the  personal  pronouns  :  as,  quoeum,  quieum,  quibuscum. 


I 


I 


f 


i  I 


56 


PRONOUNS. 


[§  105. 


/  The  accusative  form  quom,  cum  (stem  quo-)  is  used  only  as  a 
conjunctive  adverb,  meaning  when  or  since. 

g.  The  adjective  uter  is  used  as  an  interrogative  and  indefinite 
relative.     For  its  peculiar  declension,  see  §  83. 

105.  The  pronouns  quis  and  qui  appear  in  various  com- 
binations. 

a.  The  adverb  -cumque  (-cunque)  with  the  relative  makes  an 
indefinite  relative,  declined  like  the  simple  word  :  as,  quicumque. 
quaecumque,  quodcumque,  whoever,  whatever;  cuiuscunque,  etc. 

Note.  -  This  suffix,  with  the  same  meaning,  may  be  used  with  any 
relative:  as,  qualiscumque,  of  whatez'cr  sort;  quandocumque  (also  rarely 
quandoque),  whenez'er  ;  ubicumque,  xvherever. 

b.  The  interrogative  form  doubled  makes  an  indefinite  relative  •  as 
quisquis,  whoever  (so  utut,  however,  ubiubi.  wherever).     Of  quia^ 
quia  both  parts  are  declined,  but  the  feminine  is  wanting  in  classic 
use  :  thus  — 


Sing. 


NOM. 

Ace. 
Abl. 


quisquis  (quiqui) 
quemquem 
quoquo      quaqua 


quidquid  (quicquid) 
quidquid  (quicquid) 
quoquo 


Plur.    NoM.        quiqui 

D.,  Abl.  quibusquibus 


c.  Indefinite  compounds  are:  quidam,  a,  a  certain;  quispiam. 
any;  quivis,  quilibet,  any  you  please;  quisquam.  any  at  all.  Of 
these  the  former  part  is  declined  like  quis  and  qui.  but  all  have 
both  quod  (adjective)  and  quid  (substantive)  in  the  neuter 

d.  The  indefinite  quia,  otherwise  rare,  is  found  in  the  compound 
abquis.  some  one,  and  the  combinations  si  quia  //  any;  ne  quis,  /.../ 
^ny^that  none;  ecquis,  num  quis,  whether  any,  and  a  few  others 

These  are  declined  like  quis.  but   have  generallv  qua  instead  of 
quae.  e.xcept  in  the  nominative  plural  feminine.     The  forms  aliquae 
ecquae.  nominati;^^  singular  feminine,  occur  rarely. 

:n  .^7%~"^^^  compounds  quispiam,  aliquis,  and  quisquam  are  often  used 
mstead  of  quis  with  si,  ne,  and  num,  and  are  rather  more  emphatic,  as  si 
quis.  If  any  one.  si  aliquis,  if  some  one,  si  quisquam,  if  any  one  («rr,  of.  h). 


§  I05-] 


INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS. 


57 


These  compounds  are  thus  declined: 


Sing. 

aliquis, 

some. 

NOM. 

aliquis  (aliqui) 

aliqua 

aliquid  (aliquod) 

Gen. 

alicuius 

alicuius 

alicuius 

DAT. 

alicui 

alicui 

alicui 

Acc. 

aliquem 

aliquam 

aliquid  (aliquod) 

Abl. 

aliquo 

aliqua 

aliquo 

Plur. 

NOM. 

aliqui 

aliquae 

aliqua 

Gen. 

aliquorum 

aliquarum 

aliquorum 

D.,  Abl. 

aliquibus 

aliquibus 

aliquibus 

Acc. 

aliquos 

aliquas 

aliqua 

The  forms  in  -qui  and  -quod  are  adjective  ;  those  in  -quis  and 
-quid,  substantive  :  as,  aliquod  bonum,  some  good  thing;  but  aliquid 
boni,  something  good  (something  of  good). 

e.  The  enclitic  particle  que  added  to  the  interrogative  gives  a  uni- 
versal :  as,  quisque,  every  one,  uterque,  either  of  two,  or  both.  In 
this  combination  quis  is  declined  regularly. 

In  the  compound  unusqiiisque,  every  single  one,  both  parts  are 
declined,  and  they  are  sometimes  separated  by  other  words. 

Quotus  quisque  has  the  signification  how  many,  pray  f  often  in  a 
disparaging  sense. 

f.  The  relative  and  interrogative  have  a  possessive  adjective  cuius 
(-a,  -um),  whose ;  and  a  patrial  cuias  (cuiatds),  of  what  country. 

g.  Quantus,  how  great,  qualis,  of  what  sort,  are  derivative 
adjectives  from  the  interrogative.  They  are  either  interrogative  or 
relative,  corresponding  to  the  demonstratives  tantus,  talis. 

h.  Quisquam,  with  ullus,  any,  unquam,  ever,  usquajn,  anywhere, 
are  used  only  in  negative  sentences,  or  where  there  is  an  implied 
negative  (as  in  interrogative  or  conditional  sentences,  or  after  quam, 
than;  sine,  without ;  vix,  scarcely)  :  as,  nee  quisquam  ex  agmine 
tanto,  and  nobody  from  that  great  throng;  si  quisquam  est  timidus, 
is  ego  sum,  if  any  one  is  timorous,  I  am  the  man  ;  sine  ullo  domino, 
without  any  master. 

i.  Quisnam  is  emphatic  :  pray  who  f  ecquis  and  numquis  are 
compounded  from  the  indefinite  particle  en  and  the  interrogative  num ; 
they  mean  not  who,  but  any  in  a  question  :  as,  ecquis  nos  videt? 
does  any  one  see  us  f  num  quid  hoc  dubitas^  do  you  at  all  doubt  this  f 


58 


PRONOUNS. 


7.     Correlatives. 


[§§  106,  107. 


106.  Many  pronouns,  pronominal  adjectives,  and  ad- 
verbs have  corresponding  demojistrativey  relative,  interrog- 
ative and  indefinite  forms.  Such  parallel  forms  are  called 
Correlatives.     They  are  shown  in  the  following  table  : 


DEMONSTR.  RELATIVE. 

ia,  that,  he  qui,  who 

tantus,  so  great  quantus 


talis,  such 
ibi,  there 
eo,  thither 
ea,  that  way 
inde,  thence 
turn,  then 
tot,  so  many 


INTERROG.      INDEF.  RELATIVE.         INDEF. 

quis?  who?  quisquia,  whoever  aliquia,  **""' 

_  one 

quantus?  (quantuscumque)  aliquantus 

qualis  ?  (qualiscumque)      

ubi  ?  ubiubi 

quo  ?  quoquo 

qua  ?  quaqua 

unde  ?  (undecumque) 

quom,  cum  quando?  (cumcumque) 

quot  quot  ?  quotquot 


qualis 

ubi 

quo 

qua 

unde 


alicubi 
aliquo 
aliqua 
alicunde 
aliquando 
aliquot 
toties,  so  often   quoties        quoties  ?    (quotiescumque)   aliquoties 

a.  The  forms  tot  so  many,  quot,  how  {as)  7nany,  aliquot,  several, 
totidem.  as  many,  are  indeclinable,  and  may  take  any  gender  or 
case :  as,  per  tot  annos,  tot  proeliis.  tot  imperatores  (Cic),  so  many 
commanders,  for  so  many  years,  in  so  ?nany  battles. 

b.  The  relative  word  in  a  pair  of  correlatives  is  often  to  be  rendered 
simply  as:  thus,  tantum  argenti  quantum  aeris,  «.r  7nuch  (of)  silver 
as  (of)  copper. 

c.  A  frequent  form  of  correlative  is  found  in  the  ablative  quo  or 
quanto.  by  how  much;  eo  or  tanto,  by  so  tnuch,  used  with  compara- 
tives (rendered  in  English  the  .  .  .  they,  as,— 

quo   magis  conaris,   eo  longius  progrederis,  the  more  you  try, 
the  farther  on  you  get. 

107.  Certain  relative  and  demonstrative  adverbs  are 
used  correlatively  as  conjunctions:  as, — 

nt  (rel.)  .  .  .  ita,  sic  (dem.),  as  {while)  .  .  .  so  {yet). 

tam  (dem.)  .  .  .  quam  (rel.),  so  {as)  .  .  .  as. 

cum  (rel.)  ...  turn  (dem.),  both  .  .  .  and;  while  ...so  also;  not 
only  .  .  .  but  also. 

Compare  et  .  .  .  et,  both  .  .  .  and;  aut  (vel)  .  .  .  aut  (vel),  either 
.  .  .  or:  aive  (aeu)  .  .  .  mve;  rtrum  ...  an,  whether  .  .  .  or 


1 08- 1 10.] 


INFLECTION  OF   THE  VERB. 


59 


6.     VERBS. 

I.     INFLECTION  OF  THE  VERB. 
I.     Voice,  Mood,  Tense. 

108.  The  inflection  of  the  Verb  denotes  Voice,  Mood, 
Tense,  Number,  and  Person. 

a.  The  Voices  are  two  :  Active  and  Passive. 

b.  The  Moods  are  four  :  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  Imperative,  and 
Infinitive. 

c.  The  Tenses  are  six,  viz.  :  — 

1 .  For  continued  action.  Present,  Imperfect,  Future. 

2.  For  completed  action,  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  Future  Perfect. 

d.  Person  and  Number.  —  There  are  separate  terminations  for 
each  of  the  three  Persons,  —  First,  Second,  and  Third,  —  both  in  the 
singular  and  in  the  plural. 

2.    Noun  and  Adjective  Forms. 

109.  The  following  Noun  and  Adjective  forms  are  also 
included  in  the  inflection  of  the  Latin  Verb  :  — 

a.  Four  Participles,  viz.  :  — 

Active:  the  Present  and  Future  Participles. 
Passive :  the  Perfect  Participle  and  the  Gerundive. 

b.  The  Gerund  :  this  is  in  form  a  neuter  noun  of  the  second  declen- 
sion, used  only  in  the  oblique  cases  of  the  singular.  A  corresponding 
nominative  is  supplied  by  the  Infinitive  (see  §  114.  note). 

c.  The  Supine  :  see  §§  71.  ^z  and  114.  ^. 

3.    Defective  Forms. 

110.  Special  forms  for  some  of  the  tenses  are  wanting 
in  certain  parts  of  the  verb  :  — 

a.  The  Subjunctive  mood  wants  the  Future  and  the  Future  Perfect 
b..  In  the  Passive  voice  in  all  moods  the  tenses  of  completed  action 
are  supplied  by  the  Perfect  Participle  with  the  present,  imperfect,  and 
future  of  the  verb  esse,  to  be  :  as,  occisus  est,  he  was  killed. 


6o 


VERBS. 


[§§  III,  112. 


c.  The  Imperative  mood  has  only  tlie  I^resent  and  the  Future. 

d.  In  the  Infinitive  mood  the  Present  (active  and  passive)  and 
the  Perfect  (active)  only  are  formed  by  inflection.  A  Future  in  the 
active  voice  is  formed^  by  the  Future  Participle  with  the  infinitive 
esse  TO  BE  :  as,  amaturus  esse,  to  be  going  to  love;  in  the  passive,  by 
the  Former  Supine  with  iri  (infin.  pass,  of  ire,  to  go)  :  as,  amatum 
in,  to  be  about  to  be  loved.      For  the  Perfect  passive,  see  b  above. 

II.     SIGNIFICATION   OF   THE    FORMS    OF  THE   VERB. 

I.     Voices. 

111.    The  Active  and  Pa.ssive  Voices  in  Latin  generally 
correspond  to  the  active  and  passive  in  English  ;  but  — 

a.  The  passive  voice  often  has  a  reflexive  meaning  :  as,  induitur 
vestem.  he  puts  on  his  (own)  clothes;  vertitur,  he  turns  (himself). 

b.  Many  verbs  are  used  only  in  the  passive  form,  but  with  an  active 
or  reflexive  meaning.  These  are  called  Deponents  {depdnentia)  ie 
verbs  which  have  laid  aside  {^dcpdnere)  the  active  form  and 'the 
passive  meaning  (see  §  135). 

c.  Three  verbs  have  a  passive  form  in  the  tenses  of  completed 
action  :  audeo.  ausus  sum ;    gaudeo.  gavisus  sum ;  fido.  fisus  sum. 

2.     Moods. 

112.    The  Moods  are  used  as  follows  : 

a.  The  Indicative  is  used  for  direct  assertions  and  interroi^ations  • 
as  valesae?  valeo.  are  you  .veil?  /  am  well;  and  also 'in  some 
other  idiomatic  forms  of  predication. 

b.  The  Subjunctive  lias  many  uses,  as  in  commands,  conditions 
and  various  dependent  clauses.  It  is  often  translated  by  the  Indica- 
tive ;  often  with  tlie  auxiliaries  may,  might,  would,  should;  often  bv 
tlie  Inlmitive  ;  or  by  the  Imj)erative.     Thus,— 

eamus,  let  us  eo. 

cum  venisset;,  when  he  had  come. 

adsum  ut  videara,  /  am  here  to  see  (that  I  may  see). 

tu  ue  quaesieris,  do  not  thou  inquire. 

nemo  est  qui  ita  existimet,  there  is  no  one  who  thinks  so. 

beatus  sis,  may  you  be  blessed. 


§  "3] 


MOODS  AND   PAKTJCirLES. 


61 


ne  abeat,  let  him  not  depart. 
quid  merer,  why  should  I  delay  ? 
sunt  qui  putent,  there  are  some  who  think. 
imperat  ut  scribam,  he  orders  me  to  write  (that  I  write), 
nescio  quid  scribam,  /  know  not  what  to  write. 
licet  ^'k^you  may  go  (it  is  permitted  that  you  go), 
cave  cadas,  don't  fall. 
vereor  no  eat,  1  fear  he  will  go. 
vereor  ut  eat,  I  fear  he  will  not  go. 

si  moneam  audiat  (i)res.),  if  I  should  warn,  he  would  hear. 
si  vocarem  audiret  (impcrf.),  //  /  7vere  (now)  calling,  he  would 
hear. 

c.  The  Imi'Kimtivk  is  used  for  exhortation,  entreaty,  or  com- 
mand;  but  the  Subjunctive  is  often  used  instead. 

d.  The  Inkinitivk  is  used  chiefly  as  an  indeclinable  noun,  as  the 
subject  or  o])ject  of  anotlicr  verb.  In  special  uses  it  takes  the  place 
of  the  Indicative,  and  may  be  translated  by  that  mood. 

Note.  —  For  the  Syntax  of  the  Moods,  see  §§  264  ff. 

3.     Participles. 

113.   The  Participles  are  used  as  follows  :  — 

a.  The  Present  participle  (ending  in  -us)  has  commonly  the  same 
meaning  as  the  English  participle  in  -ing  :  as,  vocana,  calling; 
legentes.  reading.     (For  its  inflection,  see  egens,  §  85.) 

b.  I.  The  Future  participle  (ending  in -urus)  is  oftenest  used  to 
express  what  is  likely  or  about  to  happen. 

XoTK.—  With  the  tenses  of  esse,  to  hk,  it  forms  the  First  Periphrastic 
conjugation  :  as,  urbs  est  casura,  the  city  is  about  to  fall. 

2.  It  is  also  used,  more  rarely,  to  express  |)urj)ose  (see  §  293.  b)  : 
as,  venit  auditiirus,  he  came  to  hear  (about  to  hear), 

c.  The  Perfect  participle  (ending  in  -tus,  -bus)  has  two  uses  :  — 

1.  It  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  the  English  Perfect  Passive  parti- 
ciple in  -K13  :  as,  tectus,  sheltered ;  acceptus,  accepted ;  ictus,  hav- 
ing been  struck ;  and  often  has  simply  an  adjective  meaning  :  as, 
acceptus.  acceptable. 

2.  It  is  also  used  to  form  certain  tenses  of  the  pa.ssive  (§  1 10.  ^)  : 
as,  vocatus  est,  he  was  (has  been)  called. 


62 


VERBS. 


[§  IM- 


Note.  —  There  is  no  Perfect  Active  or  Present  Passive  participle  in 
Latin.  The  perfect  participle  of  deponents,  however,  is  generally  used  in 
an  active  sense  :  as,  secutus,  having  folUrived.  In  the  case  of  other  verbs 
some  different  construction  is  used  for  these  missing  participles  :  as,  cum 
venlsset,  Juiving  come  (when  he  had  come);  equitatu  praemisso,  having  sent 
forward  the  cavalry  (the  cavalry  having  been  sent  forward)  ;  dura  verbe- 
ratur,  while  he  is  (being)  struck. 

d.  I.  The  Cierundive  (ending  in  -ndus)  is  often  used  as  an  ad- 
jective implying  obligation  or  necessity  {oiig/if  or  f/tusf)  :  as,  audi- 
eudus  est,  he  must  be  heard. 

Note. —  With  the  tenses  of  esse,  to  hk.  it  forms  the  Second  Periphrastic 
conjugation  ;  as,  deligendus  erat,  he  ought  to  hme  been  chosen. 

2.  In  the  oblique  cases  the  (ierundivc  commonly  has  the  same 
meaning  as  the  Gerund  (cf.  §114.  a),  though  its  construction  is  dif- 
ferent.    (For  examples,  see  §§  295  ff.) 

e.  The  Participles  may  all  be  used  as  simple  adjectives  ;  and  the 
present  and  perfect  are  sometimes  compared :  as  amana,  amantior. 
more  fond;  dilectus,  dilectisaimus,  dearest. 

f.  The  Present  and  Perfect  participles  are  (like  adjectives)  often 
used  as  nouns  :  as,  regentes,  rulers  ;  mortui.  the  dead. 

g.  As  an  adjective,  the  participle  is  often  used  predicativcly  to 
indicate  some  special  circumstance  or  situation  :  as,  morituri  vos 
salutamus,  ive  at  the  point  of  death  (about  to  die)  salute  you. 

4.     Gerund  and  Supine. 

114.    The  Gerund  and  Supine  are  used  as  follows  :  — 

a.  The  Geruxh  is,  in  form,  the  neuter  sin^jular  of  the  Gerundive. 
It  is  a  verbal  noun,  corresponding  in  meaning  to  the  Entjlish  verbal 
noun  in  -in<;  (§  295)  :  as,  loqueudl  causa. //»r  the  sake  of  speaking. 

Xote.  —  The  Gerund  is  found  only  in  the  oblique  cases.  .\  corres- 
ponding nominative  is  supplied  by  the  Innnitive:  thus,  scribeie  est  utile, 
writing  (to  w.-ite)  is  useful ;  but.  ars  scribcndi,  the  art  of'wrzttng. 

b.  The  brPiXE  is  in  form  a  noun  of  the  fourth  declension  ($  71.  a). 
found  only  in  the  accusative,  ending  in  -tuxn.  -sum,  and  the  ablative 
(or  dative,  probably  both),  ending  in  -tu,  -su.  These  are  sometimes 
called  the  Former  and  the  Latter  Supine.  The  Former  is  used  after 
verbs  and  the  Latter  after  adjectives  (§§  302,  303)  :  as. 

1 .  veiiit  spectatum.  he  tame  to  see. 

2.  mirabile  dictu.  wonderful  to  tell. 


§"5] 


TE.VSKS. 


63 


i 


5.    Tenses. 

115.    The  tenses  of  the  verb  are  of  two  classes,  viz.:  — 

1 .  i)f  con  tin  ued  action . 

1 .  PRESKNT  :  scribo,  /  /////  writing. 

2.  I.Mi'KKKKCT  :  Bcribibam,  /  was  writing. 

3.  Future:  Bcilhaxn,  J  shall  write. 

2.  Of  completed  ail  ion. 

4.  Perfect  :  scripsi,  I  have  written^  I  wrote. 

5.  Pluperfect;  Hcilpaeidmi,  I  had  written. 

6.  FuTtfRE   Perfect:  ncixpnoio,  /  shalHun>e  written. 

a.     Tenses  of  the  Indicative. 

a.  The  tenses  of  the  Indicative  have,  in  general,  the  same  mean- 
ing as  the  corresponding  tenses  in  English  ;  but  are  in  some  cases 
distinguished  differently  in  their  use.     Thus,  — 

1.  The  Future  or  Future  Perfect  is  often  used  in  subordinate 
clauses,  where  the  English  uses  the  Present :  as,  — 

SI  quid  habebo  dabo,  if  I  have  (shall  have)  anything^  I  wiil give. 
cum  venero  scribam,  when  I  come  (shall  have  come),  /  will  write. 

2.  The  Present  and  Imperfect  are  often  used  to  express  continued 
action  where  the  English  uses  tenses  of  completed  action :  as,  — 

iam  diii  aegroto,  /  have  long  been  (and  still  am)  sick. 
lam  diu  acgrotabam,  /  had  long  been  (and  still  was)  sick. 

Note. —  Here  the  Perfect,  aegrotavi,  would  imply  that  I  am  now  well  ; 
the  Pluperfect,  that  I  was  well  at  the  past  time  designated. 

b.  The  Imperfect  is  used  to  describe  in  past  time  a  continued 
action  or  a  condition  of  things  :  as,  scribebat,  he  was  writing ; 
aidebat,  /'/  was  on  fire. 

c.  The  Perfect,  having  two  separate  u.scs,  is  divided  into  the  Per- 
fect Definite  and  the  Perfect  Historical  (or  Indefinite). 

1.  The  I'erfect  Definite  represents  the  action  of  the  verb  as  com- 
pleted in  present  time,  and  corresponds  to  the  English  (present-  or 
compound-)  perfect  :  as,  scripsi  /  have  written. 

2.  The  Perfect  Historical  narrates  a  simple  act  or  state  in  past 
time  without  representing  it  as  in  progress.  It  corresponds  to  the 
English  past  or  preterite  :  as,  scripait,  he  wrote  ;  arsit,  //  blazed  up. 


64 


VERBS. 


116-118. 


b.    Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive. 
d.  The  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  Mood  are  c' iefly  used  in  depen- 
dent clauses,  following  the  rule  for  the  Sequence  of  Tenses  (see  §  286)  ; 
but  have  also  special  idiomatic  uses  (see  Syntax). 

III.     PERSONAL    ENDINGS. 

116.  Verbs  have  regular  terminations  for  each  of  the 
three  Persons,  both  singular  and  plural,  active  and  pas- 
sive.    These  are  called  Personal  endings. 

IV.     FORMS  OF  THE  VERB. 

117.  Every  Latin  verb-form  (except  the  adjective  and 
noun  forms)  is  made  up  of  two  parts,  viz.: 

1.  The  Stem.     This  is  either  the  root  or  a  modification  of  it 

2.  The  Ending,  consisting  of  — 

a.  the  signs  of  mood  and  tense. 

b.  the  personal  ending  (see  §  116). 

118.  The  Verb-endings,  as  they  are  formed  by  the  signs 
for  mood  and  tense  combined  with  personal  endings,  are 
exhibited  in  the  following  table  : 

ACTITE. 

SUBJ 


Indic. 


Sing.   I.  -o 

2.  -8 

3.  -t 
Plur.  I.  -mas 

2.  -tds 

3.  -nt 


|o2 


Sing.    I. 

2. 

3- 

Plur.  I. 

2. 

3- 


-ba-m 

-ba-s 

-ba-t 

-ba-mos 

-ba-tia 

-ba-nt 


Present. 
-m 

-a 

-t 

-mus 

-tds 

-nt 

Imperfeet. 

-re-m 

-re-8 

-re-t 

-re-mus 

-re-tia 

-re-nt 


Indic 

-or 

-ria  or  -re 

-tur 

-mur 
-mini  jj 

-ntor 

-ba-r 

-ba-ria  (-re) 
-ba-tur 

-ba-mur 
-ba-mini 
-ba-ntur 


PASSITE. 


'»  a 


SUBJ. 

-r 

-ria  or  -re 
-tm- 

-mm: 

-mini 

-ntur 

-re-r 

-re-ria(-re) 
-re-tiu- 

-re-mur 
-re-mini 
-re-ntm^ 


^  These  numerals  refer  to  the  four  conjugations  given  later  (see  §  122) 


§118.] 


FORMS   OF   THE   VERB. 


65 


Sing^  I. 
2. 

3- 
Plur.  I. 

2. 


ACTIVE. 
Indicative 
1.  ii.» 
-b-o 
-bl-a 
-bi-t 


Future. 


«  s  s  U 

s  <=  Ji  « 

.bi-mu8^|~6 

l.y  •  J; 


III.  IV. 

r-a-m 


-bi-tia 
-bu-nt 


L 


-^-muB 
-/-tia 


I.  II. 
-bo-r 


PASSIVE. 
Indicative. 

III.  IV. 

-a-x 


-be-ria(-re)  |,^ 
-bi-tm^  "  "* 


-bi-mvir 
-bi-mini 
-bu-ntm: 


Sing. 

2. 

3- 

Plur.  I. 

2. 


Sing. 


Indic. 
I.  -i 
-i-8ti 
-i-t 

-i-mns 
-i-atia 


SUBJ. 

-eri-m 

-eri-s 

-eri-t 


Perfect. 


-tii8(-ta, 
-torn) 


1.  -era-m 

2.  -era-8 

3.  -era-t 

Plur.  I.  -era-mua 

2.  -era-tia 

3.  -era-nt 


-en-mua 
-exi-tia 
-eni-nt  ^r-ere  -eri-nt 

Pluperfect 

-isae-m 

-iaae-a 

-iaae-t 

-iflse-mua 

-iase-tia 

-iase-nt 


Indic. 
raom 

ea 

est 

somas 


ti  (-tae,  I 
^   ^     ^  estia 

''     [sant 


-^-ris  (re) 
-^-tar 

-<?-mar 
-/-mini 
-^-ntor 

SUBJ. 

sim 

us 

sit 

sunoB 

ntifl 

sint 


taa(-ta, 
-torn) 

.ti.(-tae, 
-ta) 


Sing.  I.  -er-o 

2.  -cil-s 

3.  -eil-t 

Plur.  I.  -eri-mas 

2.  -eri-tis 

3.  -eri-nt 


Sing.  2.  —     Plur.  2.  -te 


Future  Perfect. 


-ta8(-ta, 


-tum) 

-ti(-tae, 
-ta) 


feram 
eras 
erat 

reramas 
eratis 
erant 

{ero 
exis 
erlt 

r  erimos 
^  eritis 
leront 


esaSmus 

essetis 

eaaent 


2.  -to 
3-  -to 


2. 
3- 


-tote 
-nto 


Imperative. 

Present. 

I    Sing.  2.  -re     Plur.  2.  -mini 

Future. 

2.  -tor  2.  — 

3.  -tor  3.  -ntor 


1  These  numerals  refer  to  the  four  conjugations  given  later  (see  §  122). 


66 


VERBS. 


[§  119- 


Infinitives. 


Pre».  -re  (Pres.  stem) 
i*erf.  -isse  (Perf.  stem) 
J^M«.    -turns  (-a,  -um)  esse 


I.  II.  IV.  -ri;  III.  -i 

-tus  (-ta,  -turn)  esse 
-turn  iri 


Pres.  -ns,  -ntfs 

Perf.    __ 

Put.    -turns,  -a,  -um 

Gerund. 
-ndi,  -ndo,  -ndum  -ndo 


Participles. 


-tus,  -ta,  -turn 
<3^er.    -ndus,  -a,  -um 

Supine. 
-turn,  -tu 


THE  verb  sum. 

119.   The  verb  sum.  ^.,  is  irregular  and  has  no  gerund 
or  supine,  and  no  participle  but  the  future. 

of  JLThTSs"  ^'  '"''''  "  '"'  ^""^^  "  ''  '''  -^  -  ^'^  ^"«ection 

Principal  Parts  :  Pres.  sum,  Infin.  esse,  Perf.  fui, 

Fut.  Part,  futurus. 

Subjunctive. 


Sin£^.  I.  sum,  /am. 

2.  es,  /Aou  art  {you  are). 

3.  est,  he  (she,  it)  is. 
Plur.  I .  sumus,  we  are. 

2.  estis,^^«  are. 

3.  sunt,  they  are. 


Present. 


Sing.  I.  eram,  /was. 

2.  eras,_y^«  were. 

3.  erat,  he  (she,  it)  was. 
Plur.  I.  eramus,  we  were. 

2.  eratis,^^«  were. 
3-  erant,  they  were. 


Imperfect. 


simi 

sis 

sit 

simus 

aitis 

sint 

essem  (forem) 
esses  (fores) 
esset  (foret) 
essemus 
essetis 
essent  (forent) 


'No  translations  of  the  subjuncdve  are  given,  as  all  are  misleading 


§119] 


THE   VERB  SUM. 


67 


Indicative. 


Future. 


Subjunctive. 


Sing.  I .  ero,  /  shall  be. 

2.  eris,  you  will  be. 

3.  erit,  he  will  be. 
Plur.  I .  erimus,  we  shall  be. 

2.  exitis,  you  will  be. 

3.  erunt,  they  will  be. 


Perfect, 

Sing.  I.  fui,  /was  (have  been). 

2.  ixA'&My  you  were. 

3.  fuit,  he  was. 
Plur.  I .  fuimus,  we  were. 

2.  fuistis,  j^«/  were. 

3.  fuerunt,  fuere,  M^  w^r^. 


fuerim 

fueris 

fuerit 

fuerimus 

fueritis 

fuerint 


Pluperfect. 


Sing.  I .  fueram,  /  had  been. 

2.  fueras,  you  had  been. 

3.  fuerat,  he  had  been. 
Plur.  I .  fueramus,  we  had  been. 

2.  fueratis,  you  had  been. 

3.  fuerant,  they  had  been. 


fuissem 

fuisses 

fuisset 

fuissemus 

fulssetis 

fuissent 


Future  Perfect. 

Sing.  I .  fuero,  /  shall  have  been.  Plur.  i .  fuerimus,  we  shall  have  been. 

2.  bx&n&,  you  will  have  been.         2.  fueritis,  j^/^  will  have  been. 

3.  fuerit,  he  will  have  been.  3.  fuerint,  they  will  have  been. 

Imperative. 

Present.  Sing.  2.  es,  be  thou.  Plur.  2.  este,  be  ye. 

Future.  2.  esto,  thou  shalt  be.  2.  estote,  ye  shall  be. 

3.  esto,  he  shall  be.  3.  sunto,  they  shall  be. 

Infinitive. 

Present,  esse,  to  be. 

Perfect,   fuisse,  to  have  been. 

Future,    fore  or  futurus  esse,  to  be  about  to  be. 


68 


I 


VERBS. 


[§§   I20-I22. 


Participle. 
Futum.    futuras,  -a,  -mn,  about  to  be. 

-.^\^^^T'  '^'''''  ^PPears  in  ab-asn.  prae-.5„.;  and  as 
*.  For  essem,  etc,  forem,  fores,  etc.,  are  often  used. 

120.    The  verb  sum  appears  in   numerous  compounds, 
which  are  treated  under  Irregular  Verbs  (§  137). 

The  Three  Stems. 

..  *^^".P^   ^^'"   °^   '''"  ^^*'"  ^^'^  ^'^  formed  upon 

c^iw  ff  T"'  '''T  ^p''"^  '''^'  ""^  p^^^'y  -PPO^ed), 

called  the  Present,  the  Perfect,  and  the  Supine  Stem. 

■1  T'l  '""""^  °^  ««//««^</«r/.V,«,  both  active  and  passive  together 
w,th  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive,  are  formed  upon  the  Pkksk;S: 
and  collectively  are  called  the  Present  System. 

*■  T''^„*'"'^^  °^  computed  action  in  the  active  voice  are  formed 
upon  the  PERPECT  STEM,  and  are  called  the  Perfect  System 

c.  The  Perfect  and  Future  Participles  and  the  Supine  are  formed 
upon  the  Supine  Stem,  and  are  called  the  Supine  System. 

V.      REGULAR   VERBS. 

122.  There  are  four  regular  forms  of  Present  Stems 
endmg  respectively  in  a-,  e-,  e-,  K  With  this  difference 
most  other  d.fTerences  of  conjugation  coincide. 

a.  Verbs  are  accordingly  classed  in  Four  Regular  Conjueations 

'p^r  ^niti^e  tir—  ^^'^^  --  --irx 

1.  The  Present  Indicative  )  showing  the/r«,«/  stem  and 

2.  The  Present  Infinitive    ;      the  conjugation 

3.  The  Perfect  Indicative,  showing  the  per/ea  stem. 
4-    The  Supme,  showing  the  supine  stem. 


§  >23-] 


REGULAR   VERBS. 


69 


c.  The  regular  forms  of  the  conjugations  are  seen  in  the  following : — 

First :  Active,  amo,  amare,  amavi,  amatum,  love. 
Passive,  amor,  amari,  amatua 
Present  stem  ama-,  Perfect  stem  amav-,  Supine  stem  amat-. 

Second  :  Active,  deleo,  delere,  delevi,  deletum,  blot  out. 
Passive,  deleor,  deleri,  deletua 
Present  stem  dele-  Perfect  stem  delev-,  Supine  stem  delet-. 

Third :  Active,  tego,  tegere,  texi,  tectum,  cover. 

Passive,  tegor,  tegi,  tectus. 

Root  teg,  Present  stem  tege-,  Perfect  stem  tSx-,  Supine 
stem  tect-. 

Fourth  :  Active,  audio,  audire,  audivi  auditimi,  hear. 

Passive,  audior,  audiri,  auditu& 

Present   stem   audi-,    Perfect    stem    audiv-,    Supine    stem 
audit-. 

In  the  Second  conjugation,  the  characteristic  i-  rarely  appears  in 
the  perfect  and  supine  :  the  type  of  this  conjugation  is,  therefore  — 

Second  :  Active,  moneo,  monere,  monui,  monitum,  warn. 
Passive,  moneor,  moneri,  monitus. 

d.  In  many  verbs  the  principal  parts  take  forms  belonging  to  two 
or  more  different  conjugations  :  as,  — 

1,  2,  domo,  domare,  domui,  domitum,  subdue. 

2,  3,  meuieo,  manere,  mansi,  mansum,  remain. 

3,  4,  peto,  petere,  petivi,  petitum,  seek. 

4,  3,  vincio,  vincire,  vinxi,  vinctum,  bind. 

Such  verbs  are  referred  to  the  conjugation  to  which  the  Present  stem 
conforms. 

I.    Present  Stem. 

123.    The  Present  Stem  is  formed  from  the  Root  in 
regular  verbs  in  several  ways,  as  appears  in  <iictionaries. 


I 

•  « 


I.  i    " 


70 


VEh'/iS. 


[§§  124-127. 


2.     Perfect  Stem. 

124.    The  Perfect  Stem  is  formed  as  follows: — 

a.  The  suffix  v  (u)  is  added  to  the  present  stem  :  as,  voca-v-i. 
audi-v-i ;  or  to  the  root  :  as,  son-u-i  (son-are),  mon-u-i  (mou-ere, 
MON  treat -"d  as  a  root). 

Note.  —  In  a  few  verbs  the  vowel  of  the  root  is  transposed  anti  length- 
ened (see  §  9.  d):  as,  stra-v-i  (ster-u6),  spre-v-i  (spcr-no). 

b.  The  suffix  s  is  added  to  the  root  :  a.s,  carp-s-i  (carp-o),  tex-i- 
(for  teg-s-i,  teg-o). 

c.  The  root  is  reduplicated  by  i)rcfixing  the  first  consonant  —  |;en- 
eraliy  with  e,  sometimes  with  the  root-vowel  :  as,  ce-cid-i  (cad-o), 
to-tond-i  (tond-eo). 

Note.—  In  fid-i  (for  t  fe-fid-i,  find-o),  scid-i  (for  t  sci-scid-i,  scindo),  the 
reduplication  has  been  lost,  leaving  merely  the  root. 

d.  The  root- vowel  is  lengthened  :  as,  eg-i  (ag-o),  fug-i  (fiig-i-o). 

e.  The  root  itself  is  used  as  the  perfect  stem  :  as,  vert-i  (vert-o), 
Bolv-i  (solv-o,  .SOLV  treated  as  a  root). 

/  Son^ctimcs  the  perfect  is  formed  from  a  lost  or  imaginary  stem  : 
as,  peti-v-i  (as  if  from  f  peti-o,  f  peti-re,  pet-o). 

3.     Supine  Stem. 

125.  The  Supine  Stem  is  formed  by  adding  t-  (or,  by  a 
phonetic  change,  s-) :  — 

a.  To  the  present  stem  :   as,  ama-t-um,  dele-t-ura.  audi-t-um. 

b.  To  the  root,  with  or  without  1:  cap-t-um  (cap-io),  moiil-t-uni 
(moii-eo,  .>ioN  treated  as  a  root),  cas-um  (for  cad-t-um). 

126.  Omitted  in  this  edition. 


4.     Synopsis  of  the  Verb. 

127.  The  following  synopsis  shows  the  forms  of  the 
verbs  arranged  according  to  the  several  stems.  Amo,  a 
regular  verb  of  the  first  conjugation,  is  taken  as  a  type. 


\  \ 


§  128.] 


SYNOPSIS  OF   THE  VERB. 


71 


Prese.nt  stem,  ama-;  Perfect  stem,  amav-;  Supine  stem,  amat-. 


> 
< 


PRES.  IMTERF.  PUT.  PERF. 

iNn.      amo      ama-bam  ama-bo     :  amav-i 

Sub.     ame-m  ama-rem 

Imp.  2.  ama       ama-to 


amav-enin 


PLUPERF.  FUT.  PERF. 

amav-eram    amav-ero 
amav-isaem 


Ink.      ama-re 
.  Part,  ama-na 


:  amat-iuiiB:  amav-isse 

esBo 
:  amat-uniB 


'  I.ND.     am-or    ami-bar  ama-bor 
.Sun.     amo-r    ama-ior  


c]  Imp.  2.  ama-re 

I/) 

aS     Inf.     ama-ri 

,  Part. 


amat-UB  Bum 
amat-u8  sim 


eram 
eBBom 


—  ero 


ama-tor 


ama-tum  iri  amat-us  esse 


Ger.  ama-ndus    amat-U8 


128.  Special  Forms. — a.  In  tenses  formed  upon  the  perfect 
stem,  V  between  two  vowels  is  often  lost.     Thus,  — 

1 .  Perfects  in  -avi,  -evi,  -ovi  often  contract  the  two  vowels  into  a, 
e,  o  respectively  :  as,  amasse  for  amavisse ;  amarim  for  amavextm ; 
consuerat  for  conaueverat ;  fiestia  for  fleviatis.  So  where  the  v  is 
a  part  of  the  present  stem  :  as,  commorat  for  commoverat:. 

2.  Perfects  in  -ivi  regularly  omit  v,  hut  rarely  contract  the  vowels 
except  before  st  and  ss :  as,  audieram  for  audiveram ;  audlsse  for 
audivisse ;   audiati  for  audivisti ;  abiit  for  abivit. 

^.  In  many  forms  from  the  perfect  stem,  is,  isa,  sis  are  lost  in  like 
manner  when  s  would  be  repeated  :  as,  dixti  for  dizisti  (x  =  ca). 

c.  Four  verbs,  —  dico.  duco,  facio,  fero,  — with  their  compounds, 
drop  the  vowel-termination  in  the  imperative,  making  die,  due,  fac, 
fer ;  but  compounds  in  -ficio  retain  it  :  as,  confice  (con-flclo). 

d.  For  tlie  imj)(ralivc  of  Bcio,  the  future  form  Bcito  is  always  used 
in  the  singular,  and  acitote  usually  in  the  plural. 

e.  The  following  ancient  forms  are  chiefly  found  in  poetr)'  :  — 

1.  In  the  fourth  conjugation  -ibain,-ibo  for  -iebam,  -iam  (future). 

2.  In  the  present  subjunctive  -im:  as  in  dnim  (for  dem). 

3.  In  the  perfect  subjunctive  and  future  perfect  -aim,  -so:  as, 
fa  Trim,  faxo  (=  ficeio.  etc.)  ;  ausim  (=ausu8  sun). 

4.  In  the  passive  infinitive  -ier :  as,  irier  for  iri  ;  agier  for  agL 


72 


VERBS. 


FIRST  CONJUGATION.  — ACTIVE  VOICE. 


[§128. 


§  1 29.]  FIRS T  COXJUGA  TION,  —  ACTIVE   VOICE. 


Principal  Parts  :  Pres.  amo,  Infin.  amaie,  Perf.  amavi, 

Supine  amatum. 


Indicative. 

Subjunctive. 

V  resent. 

amo,  /  love. 

amem 

amas,  thou  loves t  (j'ou  love). 

ames 

aniat,  Ae  (s/ie,  it)  loves. 

a  met 

amamua,  we  love. 

amemiia 

amatis,/<;.v  love. 

ametia 

amaut,  they  love. 

anient 

Impevfect, 

amabam,  /  loved. 

aniarem 

amabas,  you  loved. 

amarea 

aniabat,  he  loved. 

a  mare  t 

amabamus,  we  loved. 

amaremuB 

amabatis.  you  loved. 

amaretls 

amabant,  they  loved. 

amarent 

Future. 

amabo,  /  shall  love. 

amabis,  you  will  love. 

amabit,  hi:  will  love. 

amabimus,  we  shall  love. 

amabitia,  you  will  love. 

amabunt,  they  will  love. 

Perfect. 


amavi,  /  loved. 
amavisti,  j(;«  loved. 
amavit,  he  loved. 

amavimus,  we  loved. 
amavistis,  jf7w  loved. 
amavenmt  (-ere),  they  loved. 


amaverlm 

amaveris 

amaverit 

amaverimua 

amaveritia 

amaverint 


7Z 


Indicative. 

amaveram,  /  had  loved. 
amaveraa,  you  had  loved. 
amaverat,  he  had  loved. 

amaveramuB,  we  had  loved. 
amaveratia,  you  had  loved. 
amaveraut,  they  had  loved. 


t'luperfect. 


Subjunctive. 

amaviaaem 

amaviaaea 

amavisaet 

amaviasemuB 

amaviaaetia 

amaviaaent 


Future  Perfect. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

amavero,  /  shall  have  loved.  amaverimua,  we  shall  have  loved. 

amaveria.  _y(7;/  will  have  loved.       1   amfweritia,  ^'^m  will  have  loved. 
amaverit,  he  will  have  loved.         \  amaverint.  they  will  have  loved. 

iMrKKATIVK. 

I*re».  2.  ama,  love  thou.  amate,  love  ye. 

-Fwf.    2.  amato,  thou  shall  love.       amatote,  jr  shall  love. 
3.  amato,  he  shall  love.  amanto,  they  shall  love. 

Infinitive. 
Present,  amare,  to  love. 
Perfect,  amaviase  or  amaase,  to  have  loved. 
Future,  amaturua  eaae,  to  be  about  to  love. 

PaKTICII'LKS. 

Presettt.  aman8,-antia,  loving. 

Future.  amaturuB,  -a,  -um,  about  to  love. 

Gerund. 
Gen.  amandi.  ^/^zz/V/jTr,  Ace.  amaudum.  ^7^/;/^. 

DAT.  ^mando, /or  loviug.        Ahl.  amando,  by  loving. 

SUI'INE. 

Former,  amatum         Latter,  amatu,  to  love. 

129.  The  so-called  Periphrastic  conjugations  are 
formed  by  combining  the  tenses  of  eaae  with  the  Future 
Active  Participle  and  with  the  Gerundive  :  as, 


74 


VEKIiS. 
First  Periphrastic  Conjugation. 

Indicativk. 

amaturuB  sum,  /  am  about  to  love. 
amatui-ua  eram,  /  was  about  to  love. 
amatunia  ero,  /  shall  be  about  to  love. 
amaturua  hii,  /  was  abouty  etc. 


[§129. 


§129.]         FIRST  CONJUGATION.  — PASSIVE   VOICE. 


75 


SunjUN'CTIVE. 

aim 

eaaem 


Present. 

Imperf. 

Future. 

Perfect. 

Pluperf.     amatui-ua  fueram,  /  had  been  abouty  etc. 

Fut.  Per/,  amatunia  fueio,  /  shall  have  been  abouty  etc. 

Infinitive  :  Pres.  amaturua  eaae         Per/,  amatunia  fuieae 


fuerim 
fuiaaeni 


Present. 
Imper/ 
Future. 
Per/ect. 


Second  Penphrastic  Conjug^ation. 

Indicativk. 

amandua  aum,  /  am  to  be  loved. 
amandua  eram,  /  was  to  be  loved. 


SunjUNCTIVE. 

aim 

eaaem 


amandua  ero,   /  shall  be  [wortliy]  to  be  loved. 

amandua  fui,  /  was  to  be  loved.  fuerim 

Pluper/.     amandua  fueram,  /  had  been^  etc.  fuiaaem 

Fut.  Per/,  amandua  fuero,  /  shall  have  been,  etc. 

Infinitive  :  Pres.  amandua  ease         Per/,  amandua  fuisae 

FIHST  CONJUGATION. -passive    VOICE. 

Principal  Parts  :  Pres.  amor,  Infin.  amari,  Perf.  amatua  aum. 


Indicative. 

amor,  I  am  loved. 

amaris  (-re),  jf?;/  are  loved. 

amattir,  he  is  loved. 

amamur,  we  art  loved. 
amamini,  ^t>//  are  loved. 
amautur.  they  are  loved. 


Present. 


Ftttpft'/'ect. 


amabar,  /  was  loved. 
amabaiia  (-re),  you  were  loved. 
amabatur,  he  was  loved. 

amabamur,  we  were  loved. 
amabamini,  ^^/^  were  lai'ed. 
amabantxir,  they  were  loved. 


Subjunctive. 

amer 

ameria  (-re) 
ametur 

amemur 
amemini 
amentur 


amarer 

amareria  (-re) 
amaretur 

amaremur 
amaremini 
amarentur 


Indicative. 


Future. 


Subjunctive. 


amabor,  /  shall  be  loved. 
amaberia  (-re),  you  will  be  loved. 
amabitur,  he  will  be  loved. 

amabimur,  we  shall  be  loved. 
amabimiui,  j'f?//  will  be  loved. 
ainabuntiir.  they  will  be  loved. 

Perfect. 

amatus  aum,  /  was  loved. 
amatus  es,you  were  loved. 
amatus  eat,  he  was  loved. 

amati  aumua,  we  were  loved. 
amatl  eatia,  you  were  loved. 
amati  aunt,  they  were  loved. 

Pliiperfcet. 

amatus  eram,  /  had  been  loved. 
amatus  eraa,  you  had  been  loved. 
amatus  erat,  he  had  been  loved. 

amati  eramua,  we  had  been  loved. 
amati  eratia,  you  had  been  loved. 
amati  eraiit,  they  had  been  loved. 


amatus  aim 
amatus  aia 
amatus  ait 

amati  aimua 
amati  aitia 
amati  aint 


amatus  eaaem 
amatus  eaaea 
amatus  eaaet 

amati  easemua 
amati  eaaetia 
amati  easent 


Future  Perfect. 
SINGULAR. 

amatus  ero,  /  shall  have  been  loved. 
amatus  ex\A,  you  will  have,  etc. 
amruus  erit,  he  will  have.  etc. 


PLURAL. 

amati  erimua,  we  shall  have,  etc. 
amati  eritia,  you  will  have,  etc. 
amati  enmt,  they  will  have,  etc. 


LMI'ERATIVE 


Pre*.  2.  amare,  be  thou  loved. 
Fut.    2.  :\n\ator,  thou sha It  beloved. 
3.  amator, //^  shall  be  loved. 


amamiui,  be  ye  loved. 


amautor,  they  shall  be  loved. 


Infinitive. 
Present,  amaxi,  to  be  loved. 
Perfect.  amStus  esse,  to  have  been  loved. 
Future,  amatum  iri  (amatua  fore),  to  be  about  to  be  loved. 


76 


VERBS. 


Participles. 


[§  »3o- 


rei'fcct.   amatus,  loved  {beloved,  or  having  been  loved). 
Futuve.   (Gerundive.)  amandus,  -a,  -um,  to-bcloved  {lovely). 

130.  There  are  about  360  simple  verbs  of  this  conjugation,  most 
of  them  formed  directly  on  a  noun-  or  adjective-stem  :  as,  anno,  arm 
(arma,  arms);  caeco,  to  blind  (caecus,  blind);  exaulo.  be  an  exile 
(exaul,  an  exile)  (§  \GG.  a).  Tlieir  conjugation  is  usually  regular, 
like  amo ;  though  of  many  only  a  few  forms  are  found  in  use. 

SECOND  CONJUGATION. 

Principal   Parts  :  Active,  monoo,  monoio,  moiiui,  moiiltum  ; 
Passive,  moneoi,  moneri,  moiiitua  sum. 


ACTIVE. 
Indic.  Subj. 

moneo,  /  warn,     moneam 
mones,  yoic  warn,  moneas 
monet,  he  warns,    moneat 

monemua 

monetia 

monent 


PASSIVE. 


monebam 

monebaa 

monebat 

monebamua 

monebatia 

monebant 


monebo 
monebis 
monebit 

monebimua 

monebitis 

monebunt 


moneamua 

moneatia 

moneant 


Indic. 

J*reaent. 

I    moneor 
monerifl  (-re) 
monetur 

monemur 
monemini 
monentur 


Subj. 

monear 

monearis(-re) 

moneatiir 

moneam  ur 
moneamini 
moneaiitur 


Imppt'frct. 

monerem  monebar 


monerea 
moneret 

moneremua 

moneretis 

monerent 


monerer 

monebaria  (-re)    monereria  (-xe) 
monebatur  moneretur 

monebamur  moneremur 

monebamini  monoremlni 

monebantur  monerentur 


Futtirr, 

monebor 
moneberia  (-re) 
monebitur 

monebimur 

monebimini 

monebuntur 


i 


■A 


§  U0-] 


SECOXD    COXJUGA  TION. 


77 


il 


ACTIVE. 


Indic. 


PASSIVE. 


monui 

monuisti 

monuit 

monuimuB 
monuiatia 
monuenint  (-re) 

monueram 

monueras 

monuerat 

monueramus 

monueratis 

monuerant 

monuero 
monueria 
monuerlt 

monuerimus 

monueritiB 

monuertiit 


SING. 

Vrm.  2.  mone 
Fitt.  2.  moneto 
3.  moneto 


Subj.  Indic. 

I'rrjt'ct. 

monitus  aum 
monitus  es 
monitus  eat 
nioniti  BumuB 
moniti  eatia 
moniti  sunt 


monuenm 

monueria 

monuerit 

monuorimuB 

monucritia 

monuerint 


Plupeffcct. 


monuiaaem 

monuiaaos 

monuiaaet 

monuiaaemua 

monuiaaetia 

monulaaent 


monitus  eram 
monitus  eras 
monitus  erat 

moniti  eramus 
moniti  eratia 
moniti  erant 


Future  Perfect. 

monitus  ero 
monitus  eria 
monitus  erit 

moniti  erimuB 
moniti  eritls 
moniti  erunt 

Imperative. 
PLUR.  sing. 


monete 

monetote 

monento 


monere 

monetor 

monitor 


Infinitive. 


Subj. 


monitus  aim 
monitus  aia 
monitus  ait 
nioniti  BimuB 
moniti  sitia 
moniti  aint 

monitus  essem 
monitus  esses 
monitus  easet 

moniti  eaaemuB 
moniti  essetia 
moniti  essent 


PLUR. 

monemini 


monentor 


I'reK.  monere 

Perf.  monuiaae 

Fut.    moniturua  eaae. 


Pres.  mo  nine 
j-'Mf.    monitiSnia 


moneri 

monitus  ease 

monitum  iri  (monitus  fore) 


Participles. 


Perf.  monitus 
Qer.   monendus 


r 


•■\ 

I 

A' 

^ 

J 

•A 


i*1 


Gerund  :  monendi  -do,  -dum,  -do     Supine  :  monitum,  monitu 


i*?i 


78 


VERBS. 


[§'3'- 


W 


131.  There  are  nearly  1 20  simple  verbs  of  this  conjugation,  most 
of  them  denominative  verbs  of  condition,  having  -^  corresponding 
noun  and  adjective  Jrom  the  same  root,  and  an  inceptive  in^.8c5 
(^  167^  rt):  as,  caleo,  be  warm ;  calor,  loannth ;  calidus,  luarm  ■ 
calesco,  ^ro7i'  warm;  timeo,  fear;  timor.  fear;  timidus,  timid.   ' 

Most  verbs  of  this  conjugation  form  their  perfect  and  supine  hke 
moneo.  The  following  have  -evi  and  -ituni :  deleo.  destroy  ■  fleo 
'Jveep;  neo,  s/, in ;  vieb,  plat;  and  compounds  of -pleo. ////•  -olco' 
grow.  ^      ' 

THIRD  CONJUGATION. 

PRiNcirAL  Parts  :  Active,  tego.  tegere,  t^xi.  tectum  ; 
Passive,  tegor,  tegi,  tectus  sum. 


ACTIVE. 


Indic. 


tego,  /  cover. 
tegis,  you  cover. 
tegit,  he  covers. 

tegimus 

tegitia 

tegunt 


tegebam 

tegebas 

tegebat 

tcgebamus 

tegebatis 

tegebajit 


tegam 

teges 

teget 

tegemus 

tegetis 

tegent 


SUBJ. 

tegam 

tegas 

tegat 

tegamua 

tegatia 

tegant 


Indic. 

Vrvsent. 

tegor 

tegeria(-re) 

tegitiu- 

tcgimur 
tegimini 
'    teguutur 


PASSIVE. 

SUBJ. 

tegar 

tegaris  (-re) 
tegatur 

tegam  ur 
tcgamini 
tegantur 


tcgerem 

tegeres 

tegeret 

tegeremus 

tcgerotis 

tegereut 


tcgebar 
tegebaria  (-re) 
tegebatiu 

tcgebamur 
IcgebaminI 
tegebantur 


Fittufc. 


tegar 

tegeris  (-re) 
tegetur 

tegemur 
tcgemiiii 
tegentur 


tegerer 

tegereria  (-re) 
tegeretur 

tcgeremur 
tcgeremini 
tegerentur 


V 


^ 


If 


ACTIVE. 


SUBJ. 


-re) 


§i3i-] 


Indic. 

texi 

texiati 

texit 

teximuB 
texiatis 
texerunt  ( 

texeram 

texeras 

texerat 

texeramus 

texeratis 

texerant 

tcxero 
texeris 
texerlt 

texerimua 

texeritia 

texerint 


SING.  PLUR. 

rrta.  2.  tege,  cover,  tegite 
FHt,  2.  tegito  tcgltote 

3.  tcglto         tegunto 

i*rfn.  tegere 
Verf.  tcxiaae 
fiit.  tecturua  eaae 


THIRD   CONfUGATJON. 


tcxerlm 

texeria 

texerlt 

texerimua 

texeritia 

texerint 

tcxiaaem 

texiasea 

texiaaet 

texissemua 

texiasetia 

texisaent 


Indic. 

Verfect. 

tectus  sum 
tectus  ea 
tectus  eat 

tectl  BumuB 
tccti  eatia 
tecti  aunt 

t*lH}wrfrrt. 

tectus  eram 
tectus  eras 
tectus  erat 

tectl  eramua 
tectl  eratia 
tectl  erant 


FutHvo  I'vft'crt. 


tectus  ero 
tectus  eria 
tectus  erit 

tectl  erimua 
tecti  eritia 
tectl  erunt 


Imperativk. 

SING. 

tegere 
tegi  tor 
tegi  tor 


79 


PASSIVE. 


SUBJ. 

tectus  aim 
tectus  aia 
tectus  ait 

tectl  aimua 
tcct?  aitia 
tecti  aint 

tectus  eaaem 
tectus  eaaea 
tectus  eaaet 

tecti  eaaemua 
tectl  eaaetia 
tecti  eaaent 


PLUR. 

tegimini 
tcgimtor 


Infinitive. 

tegi 

tectua  eaae 

tectum  iri  (tectus  fore) 


Participles. 

rerf.  tectua 

Ger.   tegeudua  (-undua) 
Gerund  :  tegendi.  -do.  -dum,  -do  Supine  :  tectum,  tectu 


Prea,  tegena 
Fut.  tecturua 


9 


fe 


8o 


VERBS. 


VERBS   IN  -id. 


[§UI 


Verbs  of  the  third  conjugation  in  -io  have  certain  forms  of  the 
present  stem  like  the  fourth  conjugation.  They  retain  the  i  of  the 
stem  before  a,  5,  ii,  and  e,  but  lose  it  elsewhere  except  in  the  future 
and  in  the  participle  and  gerund.    They  are  conjugated  as  follows  :  — 

Principal   Parts:  capio,  capere,  cepi,  captuni ; 
capior,  capi,  captua  aum. 
ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Indic.  Subj.  Indic.  Subj. 


capio,  /  take. 
capifl,  you  take. 
capit,  /le  takes. 

capimuB 

capitis 

capiuiit 

capiebam 


capiam 
capies 
capiet,  etc. 


capiam 

capias 

capiat 

capiamus 

capiatia 

capiant 


capior 
caperls  (-re) 
capitur 

capimur 
capimini 
capiuntur 


Imperfect. 

caperem  |    capiebar 

J-'Htttrr. 


cepi 


ceperam 


cepenin 


capiar 

capieria  (-re) 
capietur,  etc. 


rerfeet. 

I    captus  sum 


I'lufH-r/'ret. 

ccpissem  |    captus  eram 


JFuture 

Perfect. 

cepero 

j    captus  ero 

Imperative. 

SING. 

PLUR. 

SISG. 

Pres.  2.  cape 

capite 

capere 

rut.  2.  capito 

capitote 

capitor 

3.  capito 

capiunto 

capitor 

capiar 

capiaria   (-re) 
capiatur 

capiamur 
capiamini 
capiantur 


caperer 


captus  aim 


captus  esscm 


PLUR. 

capimini 
capiuntor 


§  U2.] 


FOURTH  DE^LES^IONr 


81 


SING. 

Prea,  capere 

-Per/,  cepiaae 

JPut.  capturua  esse 


Infinitive. 

PLUR. 

capi 

captua  ease 
captum  iri 


Participles. 
Pren.  capiena  1         /v,.,.  captua 

rut.  capturua  |         ^cr.  caplendua 

Gerund  ;  capiendi.  -do.  -dum,  -do       Supine  :  captum,  -tu 

132.    List  of  verbs  omitted  in  this  edition,  see  larger 
grammar. 

fourth  conjugation. 

Principal  Parts  :  Active,  audio,  audire.  audivi.  auditum; 

Passive,  audior,  audiri,  auditus  aum. 

PASSIVE. 

Subj. 


Indic. 


ACTIVE. 

Subj. 


audio,  /  hear.       audiam 
audia,_yf7«  hear,  audiaa 
audit,  he  hears,    audiat 


audimua 

auditia 

audiunt 

audiebam 

audiebaa 

audiebat 

audiebamua 

audiebatia 

audiebant 

audiam 

audiea 

audiet 

audiemus 

audietia 

audient 


audiamua 

audiatia 

audiant 

audlrem 

audirea 

audiret 

audiremua 

audiretia 

audirent 


Indic. 

Preaent. 

audior 

audiria  (-re) 
auditiu- 

audimur 
audimini 
audiuntur 

Imperfect. 

audiebar 


audiar 

audiarla  (-re) 
audiatur 

audiamur 

audiamini 

audiautur 


audirer 
audiebarla  (-re)  audireria  (-re) 
audiebatur 

audiebam  ur 
audiebamini 


audiebantur 

I'utttre. 

audiar 

audieria  (-re) 
audietur 

audiemur 
audieminl 
audientur 


audiretiu- 

audiremur 
audiremlni 
audirentur 


*r 


I     i 


82 


VERBS. 


L§  »32- 


AC 

;tive. 

PASSIVE. 

Indic. 
audlvi 

SuBj.                       Indic. 

Perfect. 

audlverlm                  audllus  aiuu 

Sunj. 
auditus  aim 

audi  vis  ti 

audlveria 

auditus  ea 

auditus  aia 

audivit 

audlverit 

auditus  eat 

auditus  ait 

audlvimus 

audlverimua 

audit!  aumua 

audltl  simua 

audlvistis 

audiveritia 

audltl  eatia 

audltl  sitia 

audlvenmt  (-re 

)  audlveriiit 

audit!  aunt 

audltl  aint 

audiveram 

I'luiterfect. 

audlvissem               auditus  eram 

auditus  essem 

audlveraa 

audlnssea 

auditus  eraa 

auditus  easea 

audlverat 

audlviaset 

auditus  erat 

auditus  eaaet 

audlveramus 

audlviaaemua 

audit!  eramua 

audltl  easemua 

audiveratia 

audivlBsetia 

audltl  eratia 

audltl  essetia 

audlverant 

audlvisaeut 

audltl  erant 

audltl  eaaent 

audlvero 

Futur'' 

retf'ect. 

auditus  ero 

• 

audlveria 

auditus  eria 

audlverit 

auditus  erit 

audlverimus 

audltl  erimua 

audiveritia 

audltl  eritia 

audiverint 

audltl  eruiit 

Imimck 

ATIVi:. 

SIXG. 

I'LUR. 

SING. 

FLUR. 

Prvs.  2.  audi 

audite 

audire 

audimini 

JFiit.   2.  audits 

auditote 

auditor 

3.  audits 

audiuiito 

auditor 

audiuutor 

Prcs.  audire 
Verf.  audiviase 
/•'««.   auditurua  ease 

Pres.  audiena 
rut.   auditiirua 


Infinitive. 
audiri 

auditua  caao 
auditxira  iri  (auditua  fore) 


Participles. 


Peif.  auditua 
Ger.  audieudua 


Gerund  :  audiendi,  -do,  -dum,  -do      Supine  :  auditum,  auditu 


t 

; 


§§U3-'35-] 


DEPONENT  VERBS. 


S3 


133.  There  are  —  besides  a  few  deponents  and  some  regular 
derivatives  in  -urio,  as  eaurio,  be  hungry  (cf.  §  167.  <r)  _  about  60 
verbs  of  this  conjugation,  a  large  proportion  of  them  being  descriptive 
verbs. 

Parallel  Forms. 

134.  Many  verbs  have  more  than  one  set  of  forms,  of 
which  only  one  is  generally  found  in  classic  use  :  as,  — 

lavo,  lavare  or  lavere,  wash. 

DEPONENT  VERBS. 

136.  Deponent  Verbs  have  the  form  of  the  Passive 
Voice,  with  an  active  or  reflexive  signification  :  as,  — 

1st  conj.  miror,  mirari,  miratua,  admire. 
2d  conj.  vereor,  vereri,  veritu8,/mr. 
3d  conj.  aequor,  aequi,  secutuB, /o/iow. 
4th  conj.  partior,  partiri,  partitua,  s/iare. 

Indicative. 


I. 

11. 

III. 

IV. 

Pres. 

miror 

vereor 

aequor 

partior 

miraria  (-re) 

vereria  (-re) 

sequeria  (-re) 

partiria  (-re) 

miratur 

veretur 

sequitur 

parti  tur 

miramur 

• 

veremur 

sequimur 

partimur 

mlramini 

veremini 

sequimini 

partimini 

mlrantur 

verentur 

secuntur 

partiuntur 

Impf. 

mirabar 

verebar 

sequebar 

partiebar 

rut. 

mirabor 

vcrebor 

sequar 

partiar 

Per/. 

miratua  aum 

veritua  aiun 

seciitua  aum 

partitua  aum 

Plup. 

miratua  eram 

vcritua  eram 

scciitua  eram 

partitua  eram 

F.  P. 

miratua  ero 

veritua  ero 

seciitua  ero 

partitua  ero 

Subjunctive. 

Pres.   iTiIrer  veiear  sequar  parUar 

/?Jip/.  mirarer  vererer  sequerer  partirer 

Per/,  miratua  sim      veritua  sim         seciitua  aim  partitua  aim 

Plup.  miratua  eaaem  veritua  eaaem    seciitua  eaaem  partitua  eaaem 


i 


1*1 


it 


84 


VERBS. 


[§  135- 


Imperative. 

I.  II.  III.  IV. 

mirare,  -ator,  etc.  verere,  -etor       sequere,  -itor     partire,  -Itor 


Infinitive. 
Pres.   mirari  vereri  sequi 

Perf.  miratus  esse     veritus  esse 


partiri 
secutus  esse       partitus  esse 
Put.    miraturus  esse  veriturus  esse    secutunis  esse   partiturus  esse 


Pres.  mirans 

Put.  miraturus 

Perf.  miratus 

Ger.  mirandus 


Participles. 
verens  sequens 

veriturus  secutunis 

veritus  secutus 

verendus  sequendus 


partiens 
partiturus 
partitus 
partiendus 


Gerund. 
mirandi,-o,etc.verendi,  etc.       sequendi,  etc.     partiendi,  etc. 

Supine. 
miratum,  -tu    veritum,  -tu        secutum,  -tu       partitutn,  -tu 

a.  Deponents  have  the  participles  of  both  voices  :   as,  — 
seqjOLen^  following.  secutunis,  about  to  follow. 
secutus,  having  followed.         sequendus,  to-befollowed. 

b.  The  perfect  participle  generally  has  an  active  sense,  but  in  verbs 
otherwise  deponent  it  is  often  passive  :  as,  mercatus,  bought;  adeptus, 
gained  (or  having  gained^. 

c.  The  future  infinitive  is  always  in  the  active  form  :  thus,  sequor 
has  secutiinis  esse  (not  secutum  iri). 

d.  The  gerundive,  being  passive  in  meaning,  is  found  only  in 
transitive  verbs,  or  neuter  verbs  used  impersonally  :  as,  — 

hoc  confitendum  est,  this  must  be  acknowledged. 
moriendum  est  omnibus,  all  must  die. 

e.  Most  deponents  are  neuter  or  reflexive  in  meaning. 

/.  Some  deponents  are  occasionally  used  in  a  passive  sense  :  as, 
criminor,  /  accuse.,  or  /  am  accused. 

g.  About  twenty  verbs  are,  with  an  active  meaning,  found  in  both 
active  and  passive  forms  :  as,  mereo  or  mereor,  /  deserve. 

h.  More  than  half  of  all  deponents  are  of  the  First  Conjugation, 
and  all  of  these  are  regular. 


§§  136.  137] 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


85 


Semi-Deponents. 

136.  A  few  verbs  having  no  perfect  stem  are  regular 
in  the  present,  but  appear  in  the  tenses  of  completed 
action  as  deponents.  These  are  called  semi-deponents  or 
neuter  passives.     They  are  — 

audeo,  audere,  ausus,  dare.      gaudeo,  gaudere,  gavisus,  rejoice. 
fido,  fidere,  fisus,  trust.  soleo,  solere,  solitus,  be  wont. 


k 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


137.  Several  verbs  add  some  of  the  personal  endings 
of  the  present  system  directly  to  the  root,  or  combine  two 
verbs  in  their  inflection.  These  are  called  Irregular  Verbs. 
They  are  sum,  volo,  fero,  edo,  queo,  eo,  fio,  and  their  com- 
pounds. ^ 

Sum  has  already  been  inflected  in  §  119. 

a.  Sum  is  compounded  without  any  change  of  inflection  with  the 
prepositions  ab,  ad,  de,  in,  inter,  ob,  prae,  pro  (prod),  sub,  super. 

In  the  compound  prosum,  pro  retains  its  original  d  before  e. 
Thus,  — 


Pres. 


Indic. 

prosum,  /  help. 

prodes 

prodest 

prosumus 

prodestis 

prosimt 


SUBJ. 

prosim 

prosis 

prosit 

prosimus 

prositis 

prosint 


Impf 

Put. 

Perf 

Plup. 

P.P. 


proderam,  /  was  helping,   prodessem 
prodero,  /  shall  help. 
profui,  I  helped.  profuerim 

profueram,  I  had  helped,     profuissem 
profuero,  /  shall  have  helped. 


Imper.  prodes,  prodesto,  etc. 

Infin.  Pres.     prodesse        Perf  profuisse       Put.  profutiirus  ess« 

Part.  profutums,  about  to  help. 


86 


VERBS. 


[§  138. 


b.  Sum  is  also  compounded  with  the  adjective  potis,  or  pote,  able, 
making:  the  verb  possum.     This  is  inflected  as  follows  :  — 

Indicative. 


Pres. 


Subjunctive. 
possim 
poMis 
possit 

posslmus 

possltis 

possint 


possum,  I  can. 
potes,  you  can. 
potest,  he  can. 

possimius,  we  can. 
potestis,  you  can. 
"  possimt,  they  can. 
Imp/,  poteram,  /  could. 
Fut.     potero,  /  shall  be  able. 
Per/,    potui,  I  could. 
PI  up.  potueram 
F.  P.   potuero,  /  shall  have  been  able. 
l^Fiyi.  Pres.    poflpe  Per/,  potmaae 

Part.  potens  {ad]), powerful. 

138.    Volo  and  its  compounds  are  inflected  as  follows  : 

Tolo,  velle,  volui  wish. 

nolo  (for  ne  volo).  nolle,  nolui  be  unwilling. 

malo  (  for  magis  or  mage  volo),  malle,  milui  unsh  rather,  prefer. 


potulssem 


IXDIC.  SUBJ. 

volo  velini 

vis  veils 

volt  (vult)  velit 

volumus  velimns 
▼olti8(vui-)  velltis 

vdunt  jA  velint 

volebam  vellem 


IXDIC.  SUBJ.  IXDIC. 

nolo  nolim  malo 

nonvis         nolis  mavis 

n&ivolt       nolit  mavolt 

nolnrnM       noUmus 

nonvultis    nolitis 
nolmit         nolint 

nolebam     DoUon 

Future. 

nolam.  Doles,  etc.  malam. 


SUBJ. 

malim 
malis 
maUt 
malumus    m^fTn^g 
mavultis     malitis 
malint 


malebam    mSiiom 


etc. 


l»  Perfect, 

voluerim     nolui  nohierim     mahii 

Vluf^erfert. 

Dohieram 


§  139] 


IRREGULAR  P'ERBS. 


87 


voloero 

Pres. 
rut. 


Future  Perfect. 
noluero 


maluero 


Imperative. 
noli  nolite,  do  not. 

nolito        nolitote,  thou  shall  not,  ye  shall  not. 
Dolito 


Infinitive. 
velle     vohziaae     nolle  noluisse       malle       malnliiia 

Participles. 
Pre«.  volens,  willing,     nolenii,  unwilling. 

Gerund:  volendi  (late) 

139.   Pero,  ferre,  tuli,  latum,  bear. 

ACTIVE. 
Indic. 

Pres.    fero 

fers 

fert 

fezimiis 

fertiB 

ferunt 
Impf   ferebam 
Fut.      feram 
Perf    tuK 
Plup.   tul^-am 
F.  P.    tulero 


fer 

lerto 
ferto 


Pres. 
Fut. 


Pres. 
Perf. 
Fut. 


Pres. 

Fut.     laticras 

Gerund:  teranffi,  -do,  -dam. 


latimis 


£. 

PASSIVE. 

SUBJ. 

Indic. 

SUBJ. 

leram 

feror 

fexar 

ieriui 

fents 

ferazis  (-re) 

ferat 

fertur 

feratur 

feramus 

ierimur 

feramur 

feritis 

feiimini 

inramini 

ferant 

feruntur 

ioqpiitur 

ferrem 

lerebar 
ierar 

ferrer 

tulezim 

latus  sum 

latusirfiii 

tUuSBBOA 

latnseram 
latus  ero 

latus  eMm 

Imperative- 

tete 

ferre 

iniininf 

intote 
ienmto 

feitor 
fertor 

fcnmtor 

IxFixirrvE. 

fern 

Wammm 

fitmi  in  (fitM  ion) 

Participles. 

Perf    fitai 

'0 

Ger.     jfeionAu 

m 

Supine 


88 


VERBS. 


[§  140. 


140.  Edo,  edere,  edi,  eaum,  eat,  is  regular  of  the  third  conjuga- 
tion, but  has  also  some  forms  directly  from  the  root  (ed)  without  the 
characteristic  vowel.     These  are  in  full-faced  type. 

ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Indic.  Subj.  Indic.  Subj. 

Present. 

edor  edar 

ederis  (-re)      edaris  (-re) 
editur  (estur)  edatur 


edo 

edis  (es) 
edit  (eat) 

edimus 


edam  (edim) 
edas  (edis) 
edat  (edit) 

edamus  (edimus) 


editis  (estis)    edatis  (editis) 


edant  (edint) 

Itnperfect. 

ederem  (essem)        '    edebar 

ederes  (esses) 


ederet  (esset) 


edunt 

edebam 

edebas 

edebat 

edam 
edes 
edet,  etc. 

edl 

ederam 

edero 

ede  (es)  edite  (este) 

edito  (esto)    editote  (estote) 
edit5  (esto)     edunto 


edimur 
edimini 
eduntur 


edamur 
edamini 
edantur 


ederer 
edebaris  (-re)  edereris  (-re) 
edebatur         ederetur  (essetur) 


future. 

edar 


ederig 
edetur,  etc. 

Perfect. 

ederim  |  esus  sum 

Pluperfect, 

edissem  |  esus  eram 

Puture  Perfect. 

I  esus  ero 


esus  Sim 


esus  essem 


edere  (esse) 
edisse 
esurus  esse 


Imperative. 
edere 
editor 
editor 

Infinitive. 
edl 

esus  esse 
esum  Iri 


edimini 


eduntor 


Participles. 


edens 
esurus 

Gerund:  edendi,  -do,  -dum,  -do 


jPre». 
Put. 


Perf. 

VtDr. 


esus 
edendus 


Supine:  esum,  -su 


§  HI.] 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


141.    l!o,  ire,  ivi,  x^mxxh,  go. 

Indicative. 

Pres.   S.     eo,  is,  it 

P.     imus,  itis,  eunt 
Imperf.       ibam,  ibaa,  ibat 

ibamus,  ibatis,  ibant 
Future.       ibo,  ibis,  ibit 

ibimus,  ibitis,  ibuut 
Perfect.       ivi  (ii) 
Pluperf.     iveram  (ieram) 
Fut.  Perf.  ivero  (iero) 

Imperative. 


Subjunctive. 

earn,  eas,  eat 
eamus,  eatis,  eant 
irem,  ires,  iret 
iremuLS,  iretis,  irent 


ivexim  (ierim) 
iviaaem  (issem) 


i,  ite,  ito,  ito,     itote,  eunto 

Infinitive. 
Pres.  Ire  Perf  ivisse(  isse)       Fut.  iturus  ease 

Participles. 

Pres.  iens,  euntis       Fut.  iturus  Ger.  eundum 

Gerund  :  euifti,  -do,  -dum,  -do  Supine  :  itum,  itii 

a.  The  compounds  adeo,  approach,  ineo,  enter,  and  some  others, 
are  transitive.     They  are  inflected  as  follows  in  the  passive  :  — 


Pres. 


Indicative. 

Subjunctive. 

adeor          Impf 

adibar 

Pres.    adear 

adiris          Fut. 

adibor 

Impf  adirer 

aditur         Perf 

aditus  sum 

Perf.   aditus  aim 

adimur        Plup. 

aditus  eram 

Plup.  aditus  essem 

adimini       F.  P. 

aditus  ero 

Infin. 

adiri,       aditus  esse 

adenntur 

Part. 

aditus     adeimdus 

Thus  inflected,  the  forms  of  eo  are  used  impersonally  in  the  third 
person  singular  of  the  passive  :  as,  itum  est  (§  146.  d^.  The  infinitive 
iri  is  used  with  the  supine  in  -um  to  make  the  future  infinitive  passive 
(§  147.  c.  i).  The  verb  veneo,  be  sold  {i.e.  venum  eo,  go  to  sale),  has 
also  several  forms  in  the  passive. 

^.  In  the  perfect  system  of  eo  and  its  compounds  the  forms  with  v 
are  extremely  rare. 

c.  The  compound  ambio,  inflected  regularly  like  a  verb  of  the 
fourth  conjugation,  has  also  ambibat  in  the  imperfect  indicative. 

d.  Pro  with  eo  retains  its  original  d :  as,  prodeo.  prodis,  prodit 


90 


VERBS. 


[§§  142,  143- 


142.  Facio,  fac§re,  feci,  factum,  make,  is  regular.  But  it  has 
imperative  fac  in  the  active,  and  besides  the  regular  forms  the  future 
perfect  faxo,  perfect  subjunctive  faxim.     The  passive  of  facio  is  — 

fio,  fieri,  factus  sum,  be  made,  or  become. 

The  tenses  of  the  first  stem  of  fio  are  regular  of  the  fourth  conjuga- 
tion, but  the  subjunctive  imperfect  is  fierem,  and  the  infinitive  fieri. 


Subjunctive. 

fiam,  fias,  fiat 
fiamus,  fiatis,  fiant 
fierem,  fieres,  etc. 

factus  sim 
factua  essem 


Fut.  factmn  iri 


Indicative. 

Pres.   S.  fio,  fis,  fit 

P.  fimus,  fitis,  fiunt 

Imperf.  fiebam,  fiebas,  etc. 

Future.  fiam,  fies,  etc. 

Perfect.  factus  simi 

Pluperf.  factus  eram 

Fut.  Per/,  factus  ero 

Imper.  fi,  fite,  fito,  fitote,  fiunto 

Infin.      Pres.  fieri  Per/,  factus  esse 

Part.      Per/,  factus  Ger.    faciendus 

a.  Most  compounds  of  facio  with  prepositions  change  a  to  1  (pres- 
ent stem),  or  e  (supine  stem),  and  are  inflected  regularly  :  as,  — 

conficio,  conficere,  confeci,  confectum,  finish. 
conficior,  confici,  confectua. 

b.  Other  compounds  retain  a,  and  have  -fio  in  the  passive  :  as, 
benefacio,  -facere,  -feci,  -factum ;  pass,  benefio,  -fieri,  -factus,  benefit. 
These  retain  the  accent  of  the  simple  verb :  as,  bene-fa'cis  (§  19.  d). 

c.  A  few  isolated  forms  of  -fio  occur  in  other  compounds  :  viz.,  — 

confit,  //  happens,  defit,  //  lacks,      infit,  he  begins  (to  speak), 

confiet  defiunt 

confiat  defiet 

confieret  defiat 

confieri  defieri 


infiunt 

effieri,  to  be  effected. 
interfieri,  to  perish. 
interfiat,  let  him  perish. 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 


143.  Some  verbs  have  lost  their  Present  stem,  and  use 
only  tenses  of  the  Perfect,  in  which  they  are  inflected 
regularly.     These  are  — 


r 


§  144] 


DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 


91 


a.  Coepi,  I  began  j  Infin.  coepisse;  Fut.  Part,  coeptunis;  Perf. 
Pass.  Part,  coeptus. 

The  passive  is  used  with  the  passive  infinitive  :  as,  coeptus  simi 
vocari,  /  began  to  be  called,  but  coepi  vocare,  /  began  to  call. 
For  the  present  incipio  is  used. 

b.  Odi,  /  hate ;  perfect  participle  osus,  hating  or  hated  (perosus, 
utterly  hateful^,  future  participle  osurus,  likely  to  hate, 

c.  Memini,  /  remember ;  with  the  Imperative  memento,  memen- 
tote ;  Part,  meminens. 

Note.  — Odi  and  memini  have  a  perfect  form  with  a  present  meaning,  <i'^ 
and  are  called  preteritrvejverbs.  Novi  and  consuevi  (usually  referred  to 
nosco  and  consuesco)  are  often  used  in  the  sense  of  /  know  (have  learned), 
and  /  am  accustomed  (have  become  accustomed),  as  preteritive  verbs. 
Many  other  verbs  are  occasionally  used  in  the  same  way  (see  §  279. 
Remark). 

144.  Many  verbs  are  found  only  in  the  present  system.  Such 
are  maereo,  -ere,  be  sorrowful  (cf .  maestus,  sad^ ;  ferio,  -ire,  strike. 

In  many  the  simple  verb  is  incomplete,  but  the  missing  parts  occur 
in  its  compounds :  as,  vado,  vadere,  invasi,  invasum. 

Some  verbs  occur  very  commonly,  but  only  in  a  few  forms :  as,  — 

a.  Aio,  /  say :  — 


Indic.    Pres.    aio,  ais,ait; 


aiunt 


Impf  aiebam  (aibam),  aiebas,  etc. 

SuBj.     Pres.    ails,  aiat,  aiant 
Imper.  ai 

Part.  aiens 

b.  Inquam,  /  say  (used  only,  except  in  poetry,  in  direct  quotations, 
like  the  English  quoth,  which  is  possibly  from  the  same  root)  :  — 


Indic.    Pres.    inquam,  inquis,  inquit 

inquimus,  inquitis  (late),  inquiunt 
Impf.  inquiebat 
Fut.     inquies,  -et 
Perf.    iuquisti,  inquit 

Imper.  inque,  inquito 


92 


VERBS. 


[§  144. 


c.  The  deponent  firi,  to  speak^  forms  the  perfect  tenses  regularly  : 
as,  Stus  sum,  eram,  etc.     It  has  also  — 

Indic.   Pres.  fatur,  fantur 

Fut.  labor,  fabitur 

Imper.  lire 

Infin.  firi 

Part.    Pres.  (dat.)  lanti 

Perf.  Stus,  having  spoken. 

Ger.  fsuidus,  to  he  spoken  of. 

Ger.  landi,  -do 

Sup.  fitu 

Several  forms  compounded  with  the  prepositions  ex,  prae,  pro,  inter, 
occur  :  as,  praelatur,  allari,  proHtus,  interfitur,  etc.  The  compound 
inlans  is  regularly  used  as  a  noun  {child).  InleuiduB,  nelandus,  are 
used  as  adjectives,  unspeakable,  abominable. 

d.  Quaeso,  /  ask,  beg  (original  form  of  quaero),  has  — 

Indic.    Pres.    quaeso,  quaesiimus 
Infin.  quaesere 

Part.  quaesens 

e.  Ovare,  to  triumph,  has  the  following  :  — 

Indic.    Pres.    ovat 
SuBj.     Pres.    ovet 

Impf.  ovaret 
Part.  ovans,  ovaturus,  ovatus 

Ger.  ovandl 

/  A  few  verbs  are  found  chiefly  in  the  Imperative  :  as,  — 

Pres.  sing,  salve,  plur.  salvete,  hail!  (from  salvus,  safe 
and  sound).     An  infin.  salvere  also  occurs. 

Pres.  sing,  ave  (or  have),  plur.  avete,  Put.  aveto,  hail  or 
farewell. 

Pres.    sing,  cede,  plur.  cedite  (cette),  give,  tell. 

Pres.    sing,    apage!    begone  I   (properly  a    Greek  word). 

g.  Queo,  /  can,  nequeo,  /  cannot,  are  conjugated  like  eo.     They 
are  rarely  used  except  in  the  present. 


§  145'] 


IMPERSONAL   VERBS. 


93 


Indic. 

SUBJ. 

Indic. 

SUBJ. 

queo 

queam 

nequeo  (non  queo) 

nequeam 

quis 

queas 

nonquis 

nequeas 

quit 

queat 

nequit 

nequeat 

quimus 

queamus 

nequimus 

nequeamus 

quitis 

queatis 

nequitis 

nequeatis 

queunt 

queant 

nequeunt 
Innperfect. 

nequeant 

quibam 

quirem 

nequibam 

nequirem 

quibat 

quiret 

nequibat 

nequiret 

quibant 

quirent 

nequibant 

nequfrent 

quibo 

quibunt 

nequibunt 

quivi 

quivit 
qmverunt 


quire 


quiverit 


Terfeet. 

neqmvi 
nequivisti 
nequivit 
neqiuverunt 

Pluperfect. 


quissent  

Infinitive. 
quivisse  (qmsse)  nequire 


quiens,  queimtis 


Participles. 

nequiens 

IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 


nequlsset 


nequivisse 


146.  Many  verbs,  from  their  meaning,  appear  only  in 
the  third  person  singular,  the  infinitive,  and  the  gerund. 
These  are  called  Impersonal  Verbs,  as  having  no  personal 
subject.     Their  synopsis  may  be  given  as  follows  :  — 


94 


VERBS. 


[§  146. 


CONJ.    I. 

II. 

III.  • 

IV. 

Pass.  Conj.  i. 

it  is  plain. 

//  is  allowed. 

it  chances. 

it  results. 

it  is  /ought. 

constat 

Ucet 

accidit 

evenit 

piignatur 

constabat 

licSbat 

accidebat 

eveniebat 

pugnabatur 

constabit 

Ucebit  ^est 

accidet 

eveniet 

pugnabitur 

constitit 

licuit,  -itum  accidit 

evenit 

puguatiim  est 

constiterat 

licuerat 

acciderat 

evenerat 

pugnatum  erat 

constiterit 

licuerit 

acciderit 

evenerit 

pugnatum  erit 

constet 

liceat 

accidat 

eveniat 

puguetm: 

constaret 

liceret 

accideret 

eveniret 

puguaretiu: 

constiterit 

licuerit 

acciderit 

evenerit 

pugnatum  sit 

constitiaset 

licuisset 

accidisset 

evenisset 

pugnatum  esse 

constare 

licere 

accidere 

evenire 

pugnari 

constitisse 

licuisse 

accidisse 

evenisse 

pugnatum  esse 

-statumm  esse  -iturumesse 

-tunim  esse  pugnatum  in 

146.   Impersonal  Verbs  may  be  classified  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Verbs  expressing  the  operations  of  nature  and  the  titne  of  day  : 
as,  pluit,  it  rains ;  ningit,  //  snows  ;  grandinat,  //  hails ;  fulgurat,  // 
lightens ;  vesperascit  (inceptive,  §  167.  <z),  //  grows  late;  luciscit 
hoc  iam,  it  is  getting  light  now. 

Note.  —  In  these  no  subject  is  distinctly  thought  of.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, the  verb  is  used  personally  with  the  name  of  a  divinity  as  the  subject  : 
as,  luppiter  tonat,  fupiter  thunders.  In  poetry  other  subjects  are  occasion- 
ally used  :  as,  fundae  saxa  pluunt,  the  slings  rain  stones. 

b.  Verbs  of  feeling,  where  the  person  who  is  the  proper  subject 
becomes  the  object,  as  being  himself  affected  by  the  feeling  expressed 
in  the  verb  (§  221.  b).  Such  are  miseret,  //  grieves;  paenitet 
(poenitet),  //  repents  ;  piget,  //  disgusts ;  pudet,  //  shames ;  taedet, 
it. wearies :  as,  miseret  me,  I  pity  (it  distresses  me). 

Note.  —  Such  verbs  often  have  also  a  passive  form  :  as,  misereor,  I  pity 
(am  moved  to  pity) ;  and  occasionally  other  parts  :  as,  paeniturus  (as  from 
t  paenio),  paenitendus,  pudendus,  pertaesum  est,  pigitum  est. 

c.  Verbs  which  have  a  phrase  or  clause  as  their  subject  (§§  270. 
<»»  33o»332.  ay  as,— 


§  147.] 


PERIPHRASTIC  FORMS. 


95 


accidit,  contingit,  evenit,  obtingit,  obvenit,  fit,  //  happens. 

libet,  //  pleases. 

licet,  it  is  permitted. 

certxun  est,  //  is  resolved. 

constat,  //  is  clear. 

decet,  it  is  becoming. 


delectat,  iuvat  //  delights. 

necesse  est, 

opori^et, 

praestat,  //  is  better. 

interest,  refert,  //  concerns. 


h  //  is  needful. 


Note.  —  Many  of  these  verbs  may  be  used  personally.  Libet  and  licet 
have  also  the  passive  forms  libitum  (licitum)  est,  etc.  The  participles 
libens  and  licens  are  used  as  adjectives. 

d.  The  passive  of  intransitive  verbs  is  very  often  used  imperson- 
ally :  as,  pugnatiu:,  there  is  fighting  (it  is  fought) ;  itur,  some  one  goes 
(it  is  gone);  parcitur  mihi,  I  am  spared  (it  is  spared  to  me,  see  §  230). 


Periphrastic  Forms. 

147.   The  following  periphrastic  forms  are  found  in  the 
inflection  of  the  verb  :  — 

a.  The  so-called  "  Periphrastic  Conjugations  "  (see  §  1 29). 

b.  The  tenses  of  completed  action  in  the  passive  formed  by  the 
tenses  of  esse  with  the  perfect  participle  :  as,  amatus  est. 

c.  The  future  infinitive  passive,  formed  as  follows:  — 

1 .  By  the  infinitive  passive  of  eo,  go.,  used  impersonally  with  the 
supine  in  -um :  amatum  iri 

2.  By  fore  (or  futurum  esse),  with  the  perfect  participle  (as  amatus 
fore). 

3.  By  fore  with  ut  and  the  subjunctive   (cf.  §  288./). 


NOTE. 


Ori|^n  and  History  of  Verb-Forms. 


The  forms  that  make  up  the  conjugation  of  a  verb  are  composed 
of  formations  from  a  root,  originally  separate,  but  gradually  grouped 
together,  and  afterwards  supplemented  by  new  formations  made  on 
old  lines  to  supply  deficiencies.  Some  of  these  forms  were  inherited, 
already  made,  by  the  Latin  language  ;  others  were  developed  in  the 
course  of  the  history  of  the  language  itself. 


96 


PARTICLES. 


7.   PARTICLES. 


[§§  148,  149- 


Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and  Interjections 
are  called  Particles.     In  their  origin  they  are  (i)  case- 
forms,  actual  or  extinct,  (2)  compounds  and  phrases,  or  (3) 
meaningless  exclamations . 

I.    ADVERBS. 
I.    Derivation. 

148.  Adverbs  are  regularly  formed  from  adjectives  as 
follows :  — 

a.  From  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions,  by  chang- 
ing the  characteristic  vowel  of  the  stem  to  -5 :  as,  care,  dearly,  from 
cams,  dear  (stem  caro-). 

b.  From  adjectives  of  the  third  declension  by  adding  -ter  to  the 
stem.  Stems  in  nt-  (nom.  -ns)  lose  the  -t  All  others  are  treated  as 
i-stems.     Thus,  — 

fortdter,  bravely,  from  fortis  (stem  forti-),  brave. 
acriter,  eagerly,  from  acer  (stem  acri-),  eager. 
vigilanter,  watchfully,  from  vigilans  (stem  vigilant-), 
priidenter,  prudently,  from  pradens  (stem  prudent-), 
aliter,  otherwise,  from  alius  (old  stem  all-). 

c.  Some  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions  have  adverbs 
of  both  forms  (-e  and  -ter).     Thus,  durus,  hard,  dure  and  duriter. 

d.  The  neuter  accusative  of  adjectives  and  pronouns  is  often  used 
as  an  adverb  :  as.  multum,  much;  facilS,  easily;  quid,  why. 

So,  regularly  in  the  comparative  degree  :  as,  acriua,  more  keenly 
(positive  acriter)  ;  faciUus,  more  easily  (positive  facile). 

2.    Classification. 

149.   Adverbs  are  classified  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Adverbs  of  Place. 
hie,  here.  hue.  hither.  hinc,  hence.  hac,  by  this  way. 

b.  Adverbs  of  Time. 
quando  ?  when  f  (interrog.)  ;  cum  (quom),  when  (relat.). 


§§  150.  151] 


ADVERBS. 


97 


c.     Adverbs  of  Degree  or  Cause. 

quam,  how,  as;  tarn,  so;  quamvis,  however  much,  although;  quo- 
modo,  how. 

d.  Interrogative   Particles. 
an,  -ne,  anne,  utrum,  utrunine,  num,  whether. 

€.  Negative  Particles. 
non,  not  (in  simple  denial)  ;  haud  (hau,  haut),  minimi,  not  (in  con- 
tradiction) ;  ne,  not  (in  prohibition)  ;  neve,  neu,  nor;  nedum, 
much  less. 

f.  Adverbs  of  Manner  (see  §  148). 
g.  Numeral  Adverbs  (see  §  96). 


3.    Peculiar  Uses  of  Adverbs. 

150.  Two  negatives  are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative  : 
as,  — 

nemo  non  audiet,  every  one  will  hear  (nobody  will  not  hear). 

a.  Many  compounds  of  which  non  is  the  first  part  express  an  in- 
definite affirmative  :  as,  — 

nonnullus,  some  ;  nonnuUi  (  =  aliqui),  some  few. 
ndnnihil  (  =  aliquid),  something. 
nonnemo  (  =  aliqaot),  sundry  persons. 
n6nnumquam>'y=  aliquotiens),  sometimes. 
necnon,  also  (nor  not). 

b.  Two  negatives  of  which  the  second  is  non  (belonging  to  the 
predicate)  express  a  universal  affirmative  :  as,  — 

nemo  non,  ndllus  non,  nobody  [does]  not,  i.e.  everybody  [does]  (cf.  nonnemo, 

above,  not  nobody,  i.e.  somebody). 
nihil  non,  everything. 
numquam  non,  never  not,  re.  always  (cf.  nonnumquam,  above,  not  never, 

i.e.  sometimes). 

151.  The  following  adverbs  require  special  notice  :  — 

a.  Etiam  (et  iam),  also,  even,  is  stronger  than  quoque,  also,  and 
usually  precedes  the  emphatic  word,  while  quoque  follows  it :  as,  — 

non  verbis  s51um  sed  etiam  vi  (Verr.  II.  ii,  64),  7iot  only  by  words,  but 

also  by  force. 
hoc  qaoque  maleficium  (Rose.  Am.  118),  this  crime  too. 


98 


PARTICLES, 


[§151- 


b.  Nunc  (for  tnmn-ce)  means  definitely  now,  in  the  immediate 
present,  and  is  not  used  as  in  English  of  past  time.  lam  means  now, 
already,  at  length,  presently,  and  includes  a  reference  to  previous  time 
through  which  the  state  of  things  described  has  been  or  will  be  reached. 
It  may  be  used  of  any  time.     With  negatives  it  means  {tio)  longer. 

Turn,  then,  is  correlative  to  cum,  when,  and  may  be  used  of  any 
time.  Tunc,  then,  at  that  time,  is  a  strengthened  form  of  tum 
ftimi-ce,  cf.  nunc).     Thus,  — 

nt  iam  antea  dixi,  as  I  have  already  said  before. 

si  iam  satis  aetatis  atque  roboris  haberet  (Rose.  Am.   149),  //  he  had 

attained  a  suitable  age  and  strength  (lit.  //  he  now  had,  as  he  will  by 

and  by), 
non  est  iam  lenitatl  locus,  there  is  no  longer  room  for  mercy. 
quod  iam  erat  Institutum,  which  had  come  to  be  a  practice  (had  now  been 

established), 
nunc  quidem   deleta   est,  tunc   fldrebat    (Lael.  13),  now  ('tis   true)  she 

[Greece]  is  ruined,  then  she  was  in  her  glory. 
tum  cum  regnabat,  at  the  time  when  he  reigned. 

c.  Certo  means  certainly;  certe  (usually),  at  any  rate  :  as,  certo 
scio,  /  know  for  a  certainty ;  ego  certe,  /  at  any  rate. 

d.  Primum  means  first,  ''firstly  "  {first  in  order  or  for  the  first 
time),  and  implies  a  series  of  events  or  acts.  Prime  means  at  first, 
as  opposed  to  afterwards,  giving  prominence  merely  to  the  difference 
of  time  :  as,  — 

hoc  primum   sentio,  this  I  hold  in  the  first  place.       '^^^ 
aedes  primo  ruere  rebamur,  at  first  we  thought  the  house  was  falling. 
In  enumerations,  primum  (or  primo)  is  often  followed  by  deinde, 
secondly,  in  the  next  place,  or  by  tum,  theti,  or  by  both  in  succession. 
Deinde  may  be  several  times  repeated  {secondly,  thirdly,  etc.).    The 
series  is  often  closed  by  denique  or  postremo,  lastly,  finally.    Thus,  — 
primum   de   genere   belli,  deinde   de   magnitudine,   tum   de   imperatore 
.    deligendo  (Manil.),  first  of  the  kind  of  war,  next  of  its  magnitude, 
then  of  the  choice  of  a  commander. 

e.  Quidem,  to  be  sure,  gives  emphasis,  and  often  has  a  concessive 
meaning,  especially  when  followed  by  sed,  autem,  etc.  :  as,  — 

hoc  quidem  videre  licet  (Lael.  54),  this  surely  one  may  see.    [Emphatic] 
(securitas)  specie  quidem  blanda,  sed  reapse  multis  locTs  repudianda  (id. 

47),  {tranquility)  in  appearance,  'tis  true,  attractive,  btU  in  reality  to 

be  rejected  for  many  reasons.  [Concessive.] 


§152] 


PREPOSITIONS. 


99 


Ne  .  .  .  quidem  means  not  even  or  not .  .  .  either.     The  emphatic 
word  or  words  must  stand  between  ne  and  quidem 

senex  ne  quod  speret  quidem  habet  (C.  M.  68),  a«  old  man  has  not  any- 

thing  to  hope  for  EVEN, 
sed  ne  lugurtha  quidem  quietus  erat  (Jug.  51),  butfugurtha  was  not  quiet 

EITHER. 

II.     PREPOSITIONS. 

152.    Prepositions  are  regularly  used  either   with  the 
Accusative  or  with  the  Ablative. 

a.  The  following  are  used  with  the  Accusative  : 


^^  ^^'  extra,  outside, 

adversus,  against.       in,  into. 
adversum,  towards,    infra,  below. 
ante,  before.  inter,  among. 

apud,  at,  near.  intra,  inside. 

circa,  around.  iuxta,  near. 

circum,  around. 
circiter,  about. 
cis,  citra,  this  side. 
contra,  against. 
erga,  towards. 

b.  The  following  are  used  with  the  Ablative  : 

a,  ab,  aba,  away  from,  by. 
absque,  without,  but  for. 
coram,  in  presence  of. 
cum,  with. 
de,  from. 
e,  ex,  out  of. 


post,  after. 

praeter,  beyond. 

prope,  near. 

propter,  on  account  of. 

secundum,  next  to. 

sub,  under. 
ob,  on  account  of.        supra,  above. 
penes,  in  the  power,  trans,  across. 
per,  through.  ultra,  on  the  further  side. 

pone,  behind.  versus,  towards. 


m,  tn. 

prae,  in  comparison  with. 
pro,  in  front  of,  for. 
sine,  without. 
sub,  under. 

tenus,  7ip  to,  as  far  as. 
c.  The  following  may  be  used  with  either  the  Accusative  or  the 
Ablative,  but  with  a  difference  in  meaning  : 

in,  into,  in.  sub,  under. 

subter,  beneath,     super,  above. 

In  and  sub,  when  followed  by  the  accusative,  indicate  motion  to, 
when  by  the  ablative,  rest  in.  a  place  :   as,  — 

venit  in  aedes,  he  came  into  the  house  ;  erat  in  aedibus,  he  was  in  the  house. 
sub  nice  consederat,  he  had  seated  himself  under  an  ilex. 
sub  leges  mittere  orbem,  to  subject  the  world  to  laws  (to  send  the  world 
under  laws). 


lOO 


PARTICLES. 


[§§153-156. 


153.    The  uses  of  the  Prepositions  are  various,  and  are 
explained  in  the  dictionaries. 

III.     CONJUNCTIONS. 

164.  Conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases,  or  sen- 
tences.    They  are  of  two  classes  :  — 

a.  Co-ordinate,  connecting  co-ordinate  or  similar  constructions 
(see  §  180.  a).     These  are  — 

1.  Copulative  or  disjunctive,  implying  a  connection  or  opposition 

.of  thought  as  well  as  of  words  :  as,  et,  and. 

2.  Adversative,  implying  a  connection  of  words,  but  a  contrast  m 

thought :  as,  sed,  but. 

3.  Causal,  introducing  a  cause  or  reason  :  as,  Ti3oa\.,for. 

4.  Illative,  denoting  an  inference  :  as,  igitur,  therefore. 

b.  Subordinate,  connecting  a  subordinate  or  dependent  clause 
with  that  on  which  it  depends  (see  §  180.  b).     These  are  — 

1.  Conditional,  denoting    a  condition  or  hypothesis  :    as,  si,  ifj 

nisi,  unless. 

2.  Comparative,  implying  comparison  as  well  as  condition  :  as,  ac 

si,  as  if. 

3.  Concessive,  denoting  a  concession  or  admission  :  as,  quam- 

quam,  although  (lit.  however  much  it  may  be  true  that,  etc.). 

4.  Temporal  :  as,  postquam,  after. 

5.  Consecutive,  expressing  result  :  as,  ut,  so  that. 

6.  Final,  expressing  purpose  :  as,  ut,  in  order  that ;  ne,  that  not. 

166.  Conjunctions  are  more  numerous  and  more  accu- 
rately distinguished  in  Latin  than  in  English.  For  clas- 
sified lists,  see  larger  grammar. 

166.  The  following  are  the  principal  conjunctions 
whose  meaning  requires  to  be  noticed  : — 

a.  Et,  and.,  simply  connects  words  or  clauses ;  -que  combines  more 
closely  into  one  connected  whole,  -que  is  always  enclitic  to  the  word 
connected  or  to  the  first  or  second  of  two  or  more  words  connected. 
Thus,  — 


§156.] 


CONJUNCTIONS. 


lOI 


cum  coniugibus  et  liberis,  xvith  [their]  wives  and  children. 

ferro  Ignlque,  with  fire  and  sword.     [Not  as  separate  things,  but  as  the 

combined  means  of  devastation.] 
aqua  et  igni  \n.tQ,xd:\z\.\x%  forbidden  the  use  of  water  and  fire.     [In  a  legal 

formula,  where  they  are  considered  separately.] 

Atque  (ac)  adds  with  some  emphasis  or  with  some  implied  re- 
flection on  the  word  added.  Hence  it  is  often  equivalent  to  and  so, 
and  yet,  and  besides.  But  these  distinctions  depend  very  much  upon 
the  feeling  of  the  speaker,  and  are  often  untranslatable  :  as,— 

omnia  honesta  atque  inhonesta,  everything  honorable  and  dishonorable 

(too,  without  the  slightest  distinction), 
usus  atque  discipllna,  practice  and  theory  beside  (the  more  important  or 

less  expected), 
atque  ego  credo,  and  yet  I  believe  (for  my  part). 

In  the  second  of  two  connected  ideas,  and  not  is  expressed  by 
neque  (nee):  as, — 

neque  vero  hoc  solum  dixit,  and  he  not  only  said  this. 

Atque  (ac),  in  the  sense  of  as,  than,  is  also  used  after  words  of 
comparison  and  likeness  :  as,  — 

non  secus  (aliter)  ac  si,  not  otherwise  than  if. 

pro  eo  ac  debul,  as  was  my  duty  (in  accordance  as  I  ought). 

b.  Sed  and  the  more  emphadc  verum  or  vero,  but,  introduce 
something  in  opposition  to  what  precedes,  especially  after  negadves 
{not  this  .  .  .  but  something  else).  At  introduces  with  emphasis  a 
new  point  in  an  argument,  but  is  also  used  like  the  others. 

At  enim  almost  always  introduces  a  supposed  objection  which  is 
presently  to  be  overthrown.  At  is  more  rarely  used  alone  in  this 
sense.  Autem,  however,  now,  is  the  weakest  of  the  adversatives, 
and  often  has  hardly  any  adversative  force  perceptible.  Atqui, 
however,  now,  somedmes  introduces  an  objection  and  sometimes  a 
fresh  step  in  the  reasoning.  Quod  si,  but  if,  and  if,  now  if,  is  used 
to  continue  an  argument.     Ast  is  old  or  poetic  and  is  equivalent  to  at. 

Note.  —  A  concessive  is  often  followed  by  an  adversative  either  in  a  co- 
ordinate or  a  subordinate  clause  :  as,  etiamsi  quod  scribas  non  habebis, 
scribito  tamen  (Cic),  though  you  have  nothing  to  write,  still  write  all  the  same. 

c.  Aut,  or,  excludes  one  alternative ;  vel  and  -ve  give  a  choice 
between  two.     But  this  distinction  is  sometimes  neglected.     Thus,  — 


I02 


PARTICLES. 


[§  156. 


sed  quis  ego  sum  aut  quae  est  in  me  facultas,  but  who  am  /,  or  what 
special  capacity  have  I?  [Here  vel  could  not  be  used,  because  in  fact 
a  negative  is  implied  and  both  alternatives  are  excluded.] 

quam  tenui  aut  nulla  potius  valetudine,  what  feeble  health  [he  had],  or 
rather  none  at  all.     [Here  vel  might  be  used,  but  would  refer  only 
to  the  expression,  not  to  the  fact.] 
vita  talis  fuit  vel  fortuna  vel  gloria,  his  life  was  such  either  in  respect  to 
fortune  or  fame  (whichever  way  you  look  at  it). 

si  proplnquos  habeant  imbecilliores  vel  animo  vel  fortuna,  //  they  have 
relatives  beneath  them  either  in  spirit  or  in  fortune  (in  either  respect, 
for  example). 

cum  cogniti  sunt  et  aut  deorum  aut  regum  fllii  invent!,  sons  either  of 
gods  or  of  kings.     [Here  one  case  would  exclude  the  other.] 

Sive  (aeu)  is  properly  used  in  disjunctive  conditions  {if  either 
or  if),  but  also  with  alternative  words  and  clauses,  especially  with 
two  names  for  the  same  thing  :  as,  — 

sive  arridens  sive  quod    ita  putaret  (De  Or.  i.  91),  either  laughingly 
or  because  he  really  thought  so. 

Vel  is  often  used  with  no  alternative  force  :  as,  — 
vel  minimus,  the  very  least. 

d.  Nam  and  namque,>r,  usually  introduce  a  real  reason,  formaUy 
expressed,  for  a  previous  statement ;  enim  (always  postpositive),  a 
less  important  explanatory  circumstance  put  in  by  the  way  ;  etenim 
{for,  you  see;  for,  you  know,  and  its  negative  neque  enim  intro- 
duce something  self-evident  or  needing  no  proof. 

(ea  vita)  quae  est  sola  vita  nominanda.  nam  dum  sumus  in  his  inclusi 
compagibus  corporis  munere  quodam  necessitatis  et  gravi  opere  per- 
fungimur.     est  enim  animus  caelestis,  etc.  (Cat.  Maj.  77). 

harum  trium  sententiarum  null!  prorsus  assentior.  nee  enim  ilia  prima 
vera  est,  for  of  course  that  first  one  is  n't  true. 

e.  Ergo,  therefore,  is  used  of  things  proved  formally,  but  often  has 
a  weakened  force.  Igitur.  then,  accordingly,  is  weaker  than  ergo 
and  IS  used  in  passing  from  one  stage  of  an  argument  to  another. 
Itaque.  therefore,  accordingly,  and  so,  is  used  in  proofs  or  inferences 
from  the  nature  of  things  rather  than  in  formal  logical  proof. 

All  of  these  are  often  used  merely  to  resume  a  train  of  thought 
broken  by  a  digression  or  parenthesis.  Idcirco.  for  this  reason,  on 
this  account,  is  regularly  followed  (or  preceded)  by  a  correlative   'as 


§156.] 


CONfUNCTIONS, 


103 


quia,  quod,  si  ut,  ne,  and  refers  to  the  special  point  introduced  by 
the  correlative. 

ne  aegri  quidem  quia  non  omnes  convalescunt,  idcirco  ars  nulla  me- 
dicinae  est. 

malum  mihi  videtur  mors,  est  miserum  igitur,  quoniam  malum,  certe. 
ergd  et  ei  quibus  evenit  iam  ut  morerentur  et  ei  quibus  eventurum 
est  miseri.     mihi  ita  videtur.     nemo  ergo  non  miser.     (Tusc.  i.  9.) 

meministis  enim  cum  illius  nefarii  gladiatoris  voces  percrebuissent  quas, 
etc.  —  tum  igitur  (Mur.  50). 

/.  Quia,  because,  regularly  introduces  a  fact ;  quod,  either  a  fact 
or  a  statement.      Quoniam    (for  quom  iam),  inasmuch  as,  since, 
when  now,  now  that,  has  reference  to  motives,  excuses,  or  justifica- 
tions, and  the  like.     Quando,  since,  is  mostly  archaic  or  late, 
possunt  quia  posse  videntur,  they  can  because  they  think  they  can. 
locus  est  a  me  quoniam  ita  Murena  volult  retractandus  (Mur.  54),  / 

must  review  the  point,  since  Murena  has  so  wished. 
me  reprehendis  quod  idem  defendam  (as  he  had  not)  quod  lege  punierim 
(Mur.  67),  you  blame  me  because    [as  you  say]  /  defend  the  same 
charge  which  I  have  punished  by  law. 

In  the  denial  of  a  reason,  non  quo  is  used  as  well  as  non  quod, 
non  quia,  and  non  quin,  but  not  non  quoniam.     Thus, 

non  quia  multis  debeo  ...  sed  quia  saepe  concurrunt  aliquorum  bene  de 

me  meritorum  inter  ipsos  contentiones  (Plane.  78),  not  because  I  am 

indebted  to  many,  but  because,  etc. 
non  quin  pari  virtute  et  voluntate  alii  fuerint,  sed  tantam  causam  non 

habuerunt  (Phil.  vii.  6),  not  that  there  were  not  others  of  equal  courage 

and  good-will,  but  they  had  not  so  much  reason. 

g.  Cum  (quom),  when,  is  always  a  relative,  and  is  often  correla- 
tive with  tum,  (see  h.  i,  below);  quando,  when  (rarely  since),  is 
used  as  interrogative,  relative,  and  indefinite  :  as,  quando  ?  hodie, 
when  f  to-day  J  si  quando,  if  ever. 

h.  I.  Conjunctions,  especially  those  of  relative  origin,  frequently 
have  a  correlative  in  another  clause,  to  which  they  correspond  :  as, 

ut  sementem  feceris,  ita  metes,  as  you  so7v,  so  shall  you  reap. 

2.  Often  the  same  conjunction  is  repeated  in  two  co-ordinate 
clauses.     Examples  are  — 

et .  .  .  et,  both  .  .  .  and. 

miodo  .  .  .  mode,  now  .  .  .  now. 

nunc  .  .  .  nunc,  now  .  .  .  now. 


I04 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 


[§  157. 


/.  The  concessives  (etsi,  quamvis,  etc.,  although)  may  introduce 
either  a  fact  or  a  mere  supposition,  and  are  often  followed  by  the  cor- 
relative tamen,  yet,  nevertheless j  quamquam  regularly  introduces 
an  admitted  fact  and  not  a  mere  supposition. 

Quamquam  (and  rarely  etai,  tametsi)  in  the  sense  of  though 
{and  yet,  but,  however)  may  also  introduce  an  independent  state- 
ment made  to  limit  or  correct  the  preceding  :  as, 

ille  volt  diu  vivere,  hie  diu  vixit,  quamquam,  6  di  boni,  quid  est  in 
hominis  vita  diu  ?  (Cat.  M.  68),  the  one  wishes  to  live  long,  the 
other  has  lived  long,  though  (after  all)  Good  Heavens!  what  is  there 
that  is  long  in  the  life  of  man  ? 

k.  Autem,  enim,  and  vero  are  postpositive,  i.e.  they  always 
follow  one  or  more  words  of  their  clause ;  so,  generally,  igitur  and 
often  tamen. 


INTERJECTIONS. 

O,  en,  ecce,  ehem,  papae,  vah  (of  astonishment). 

io,  evae,  evoe,  euhoe  (oijoy). 

heu,  eheu,  vae,  alas  (of  sorrow). 

heus,  eho,  ehodmn,  ho  (of  calling)  ;  at,  hist. 

eia,  euge  {oi  praise). 

pro  (of  attestation)  :  as,  pro  pudor,  shame/ 

FORMATION    OF    WORDS. 

Note.  — All  formation  of  words  is  originally  a  process  of  composition. 
An  element  significant  in  itself  is  added  to  another  significant  element,  and 
thus  the  meaning  of  the  two  is  combined. 

I.     ROOTS  AND  STEMS. 

157.    Roots  1  are  of  two  kinds  : — 

1.  Verbal,  expressing  ideas  of  action  or  condition  (sensi- 
ble phenomena). 

2.  Pronominal,  expressing  ideas  of  position  and  direc- 
tion. 

1  For  the  distinction  between  Roots  and  Stems,  see  §§  21,  22. 


§§158-160.]      • 


SUFFIXES. 


105 


Stems  are  divided  into   (i)   Noun-  (including   Adjec- 
tive-) stems,  and  (2)  Verb-stems. 

158.    Words  are  formed  by  inflection  : — 
I.    From  roots  inflected  as  stems, 

a.  Without  change  :    as,  duo-is  (dux),  dug  ;   nec-is  (nex)  ;   is, 
id.     So  in  verbs  :  as,  est,  fert,  est 

b.  With  change  of  the  root-vowel  :  as,  luc-is  (libc),  luc  ;  pac-is 
(pax).     So  in  verbs  :  i-s  for  feis,  from  eo,  ire ;  fatur,  from  for,  firL 

Note.  —  It  is  impossible  to  say   whether  the  form  of  root  in  a  or  in  ^ 
is  the  onginal  one.     But  for  convenience  the  above  order  is  adopted. 

c.  With  reduplication:    as,    fur-fur,  mar-mor,    mur-mur.      So  in 
verbs  :  as,  si-sto  (root  sta). 

2.  From  derived  stems  ;  see  §  1 59. 

II.    SUFFIXES. 

159.  Stems  are  derived  from  roots  or  from  other  stems 
by  means  of  suffixes.     These  are  — 

I.  Primary:  added  to  the  root,  or  (later  by  analogy)  to  verb- 
stems. 

2..  Secondary  :  added  to  a  noun-  or  adjective-stem. 

Both  primary  and  secondary  suffixes  are  for  the  most  part  pronom- 
mal  roots  (§  157.  2),  but  a  few  are  of  doubtful  origin.  Thus  a  word 
regularly  consists  of  a  verbal  root  and  one  or  more  pronominal  roots 
and  inflectional  terminations. 

I.     Primary  Suffixes. 

160.  The  words  in  Latin  formed  immediately  from  the 
root  by  means  of  Primary  suffixes  are  few. 

a.  Inherited  words  so  formed  were  mostly  further  developed  by 
the  addition  of  other  suffixes,  as  we  might  make  an  adjective  lone-ly- 
some-tsh,  meaning  nothing  more  than  lone,  lonely,  or  lonesome. 

b.  By  such  accumulation  of  suffixes,  new  compound  suffixes  were 
formed  which  crowded  out  even  the  old  types  of  derivation  :  thus,  — 


io6 


FORMATION  OF   WORDS. 


[§§  i6i,  162. 


A  word  like  mens,  mentia,  by  the  suffix  on-  (nom.  -o)  gave  mentio, 
and  this  being  divided  into  men  -f-  tio,  gave  rise  to  a  new  type  of 
abstract  nouns  in  -tio  (phonetically  -sio)  :  as,  legatio,  embassy. 

A  word  like  auditor,  by  the  suffix  io-  (nom.  -ius),  gave  rise  to 
adjectives  like  auditorius,  of  which  the  neuter  is  used  to  denote  the 
place  where  the  action  of  the  verb  is  performed.  Hence  -torium,  n., 
becomes  a  regular  suffix  (§  164.  /.  5). 

So  in  English  such  a  word  as  mechanically  gives  a  suffix  -ally^ 
making  telegraphically.,  though  there  is  no  such  word  as  telegraph- 
ic al. 

c.  Examples  of  primary  suffixes  are  — 

1 .  Vowel  suffixes  :  as,  — 

a,  found  in  nouns  and  adjectives  of  a-  and  o-stems :  as,  sonus,  ludus, 
vagus,  scriba,  toga  (root  teg). 

2.  Suffixes  with  a  consonant :  as,  — 

ta  (in  the  form  to-)  in  the  regular  perfect  passive  participle,  as  tectus, 
tectum ;  sometimes  with  an  active  sense,  as  in  potus,  pransus ;  and  found 
in  a  few  words  not  recognized  as  participles,  as  putus  (cf .  purus),  altus  (alo). 

va  (commonly  uo-)  with  an  active  or  passive  meaning,  as  in  ecus,  arvum, 
conspicuus,  eziguus,  vacivus  (vacuus). 

2.     Significant  Endings. 

161.  Both  primary  and  secondary  suffixes,  especially 
in  the  form  of  compound  suffixes,  were  used  in  Latin  with 
more  or  less  consciousness  of  their  meaning.     They  may 
therefore  be  called  Significant  Endings. 

They  form  :  i.  Nouns  of  Agency  ;  2.  Names  of  Ac- 
tion ;  3.  Adjectives  (active  or  passive). 

III.     DERIVATION   OF   NOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES. 
I.    Nouns  of  Agency. 

162.  Nouns  of  Agency  properly  denote  the  agent  or 
doer  of  an  action.  But  they  include  many  words  in 
which,  the  idea  of  agency  has  entirely  faded  out,  and  also 
many  words  used  as  adjectives.  Their  significant  endings 
are  — 


§  163.] 


NOUNS  OF  AGENCY. 


107 


a.  -tx)r  (-sor),  m.,  -trix,  p.,  added  to  roots  or  verb-stems  to  denote 
the  agent  or  doer  of  an  action. 

cano,  sing  (can,  supine  fcantmn) ;  cantor,  singer;  cantrix,  song- 
stress. 

tondeo,   shear  (tond  as  root,  sup.  tonsum)  ;    tonsor,  tonstrix, 

hair-cutter. 
By  analogy  -tor  is  sometimes  added  to   noun-stems  as  if  stems 
of  lost  verbs  :  as,  viator,  traveller,  from  via,  way  (but  cf.  invio). 

b.  t-  (originally  ta-,  cf.  §  160.  c),  c,  added  to  verb-stems  making 
nouns  in  -es  (-itia,  -etis,  stem  -it-,  -et-)  descriptive  of  a  character  : 
as,  — 

teges  (verb-stem  tege-,  cf.  tego,  cover),  a  cover er,  a  ?nat. 

c.  -o  (gen.  -onis,  stem  on-),  m.,  added  to  stems  conceived  as 
verb-stems  (but  perhaps  originally  noun-stems)  to  indicate  a  person 
employed  in  some  specific  art  or  trade  :  as,  — 

gero  (ges  in  gero,  gerere,  carry,  but  compare  -ger  in  aimiger, 

squire),  a  carrier. 
com-bibo  (bib  as  root  in  bibo,  bibere,  drink),  a  pot-companion. 

2.    Names  of  Actions. 

163.  Names  of  Actions  are  derived  (i)  really  or  appar- 
ently from  roots  and  verb-stems  {primary)  or  (2)  from 
noun-stems  {secondary). 

Note.  —  These  easily  pass  into  pure  Concrete  nouns  denoting  the  result, 
means,  or  instrument  of  the  action.  Compare  an  apparition,  a  congregation, 
a  rainfall,  a  large  following,  a  drive  of  logs. 

I .  Real  or  Apparent  Primary  Formations. 

a.  -or  (St.  or-,  earlier  os-),  m.,  -is  (gen.  -is,  st.  i-,  earlier  es-),  f., 
-us  (St.  es-,  or  os-),  n.,  added  to  roots  make  names  of  actions  :  as,  — 

timeo,/^<2r  (verb);  tim-or./^^r  (noun). 

sedeo,  sit;  sed-es,  seat. 

decet,  it  is  becoming;  dec-us,  grace,  beauty. 

Note.  —  Many  nouns  of  this  class  are  formed  by  analogy  from  imaginary 
roots  :  as,  facinus  (from  a  supposed  root  facin). 

b.  -io  (St.  ion-),  -tio  (st.  tion-),  -tura  (st.  tura-),  f.,  -tus  (st.  tu-), 
M.,  (phonetically  -sio,  -sura,  -sus),  apparently  added  to  roots  or  verb- 
stems,  make  verbal  abstracts. 


io8 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 


[§  »63. 


lego,  enroll;  leg-io  {an  enrolling.,  the  thing  enrolled).,  a  legion. 

rego,  direct  J  reg-io,  a  direction.,  a  region. 

Insero  (sa),  implant;  msi-^o,  grafting. 

voco,  call;  voca-tio,  a  calling. 

molior,  toil;  moU-tio,  a  toiling. 

pingo  {?\g),  paint;  pic-tura,  the  art  of  paintings  a  painting. 

senXio,  feel ;  s^n-sMB,  feeling,  perception,  a  feeling. 

fruor,  enjoy  (for  ffruguor) ;  fruc-tus,  enjoyfnent,  fruit,  a  fruit. 

c.  -men,  -mentum,  -monium,  n.,  -monia,  f.,  apparently  added  to 
roots  or  verb-stems  denote  acts,  or  means  and  results  of  acts. 

ago,  root  AG,  lead;  ag-men,  litte  of  inarch,  a  company. 

.    ,  ^  -    r       „.    ( regi-men,  rule. 

regi-  (stem  seen  m  rego,  direct)  ]  \ 

(  regi-mentum,  rule. 

So  colu-men,  pillar;  mo-men,  movement ;  no-men,  name. 

tmox,  enjoy;  fru-mentmn,  ^r«/«. 

testor,  witness;  testi-monium,  testimony. 

queror,  complain;  qiieri-monia,  complaint. 

Also  fla-men  (m.),  a  priest  (flo,  blow,  of  the  sacrificial  fire). 

Remark. monium  and  -monia  are  also  used  as  secondary,  form- 
ing nouns  from  other  nouns  and  from  adjectives  :  as,  sancti-monia, 
sanctity  (sanctus,  holy)  ;  matri-monium,  marriage  (mater,  mother). 

d.  -bulum,  -culum,  -brmn,  -crum,  -trum,  n.,  added  to  verb-stems 
or  roots  (rarely  to  noun-stems),  denote  means,  instrument,  or 
PLACE  :  as,  — 

pasco,  feed;  pa-buliun,  fodder. 

sto,  stand ;  sta-bulmn,  stall  {standing-place). 

tus  (gen.  turis),  incense ;  turi-bulum,  a  censer. 

veho,  carry  ;  vehi-culum,  wagon. 

^io,  purify  ;  pia-culum,  an  expiation. 

flo,  blow;  fla-bra  (pi.),  blasts. 

candela,  a  candle;  candela-bnmi,  a  candlestick. 

sepelio,  bury ;  sepul-crum,  tomb  {place  for  burying). 

claudo,  shut;  claus-tnun,  a  bar. 

A  few  Masculines  and  Feminines  of  the  same  formation  occur  as 
nouns  and  adjectives  :  as,  — 

for,  speak;  fi-bula,  tale. 

rideo,  laugh;  ridi-culus,  laughable. 


§  163.] 


NAMES  OF  ACTIONS. 


109 


facio,  make ;  fa-ber,  smith. 
lateo,  hide;  late-bra,  hiding-place, 
tero,  bore ;  tere-bra,  auger. 
mulgeo,  milk;  mulc-tra,  milk-pail. 
iiro,  burn;  Aus-ter,  South  wind. 

2.    Secondary  Formations. 

e.  -ia,  -tia  (-ies,  -ties),  -tas,  -tus,  -tudo,  f.,  are  added  to  adjective 
stems  and  a  few  to  nouns  to  make  abstracts.     So  -do  and  -go,  f., 
but    associated   with   verbs,    and   apparently  added    to   verb-stems 
Thus,  — 

audax,  bold;  audac-ia,  boldness.    So,  fiduc-ia,  confidence  (f  fidlLs). 

prndens,  wise;  prudent-ia,  wisdom. 

superbus,  proud;  superb-ia,  pride. 

tristis,  sad;  tristi-tia,  sadness. 

pauper,  poor;  pauper-ies,  poverty. 

segnis,  lazy;  segni-ties,  laziness. 

bonus,  good;  boni-tas,  goodness. 

civis,  citizen;  civi-tas,  citizenship, 

senex,  old;  senec-tus,  age. 

solus,  alone;  soli-tudo,  solitude. 

dulcis,   sweet;  dulce-do,  sweetness  (probably  from  a  lost  stem 

dulce-,  cf.  dulce-sco). 
cupio,  /  desire;  cupi-do  (as  if  from  stem  cupi-,  cf.  cupi-vi). 
lumbus,  the  loin;  lumba-g5,  lumbago  (as  if  from  f  lumbo,  are). 
rubus,  bramble  (red  bush)  ;  rubi-go,  rust  (redness). 
prurio,  itch;  priiri-go,  itching. 

Stems  ending  in  o-  or  a-  lose  these  vowels  before  -ia  (as  superb-ia), 
and  change  them  to  i  before  -tas,  -tus,  -tia  (as  boni-tas,  above). 

Consonant-stems  often  insert  -i  before  -tas:  as,  loquaz  (stem 
loquac-),  loquaci-tas;  but  hones-tas,  maies-tas  (as  if  from  old  ad- 
jectives in  -es),  uber-tas,  volup-tas.  o  after  i  is  changed  to  e:  as, 
plus  (stem  pio-),  pie-tas;  socius,  socie-tas  (see  §  w.d). 

f.  -ium,  -tium,  added  to  noun-  and  perhaps  verb-stems,  form 
neuter  abstracts,  which  easily  pass  into  concretes  denoting  offices 
and  GROUPS  :  as,  — 

hospes  (gen.  hospit-is),  a  guest;  hospit-ium,  hospitality,  an  inn. 
servus,  a  slave;  servi-tium,  slavery,  the  slai'e  class. 


no 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 


[§  164. 


collega,  a  colleague;  coUeg-ium,  colleagueship^  a  college. 
auspez,  a  soothsayer ;  auspic-ium,  soothsaying^  an  omen. 
gaudeo,  rejoice;  gaud-iuin,  y^^. 

benefacio,  benefit;  benetic-ium,  a  kindness  (but  cf.  beneficiis). 
de-sidero,  miss  (from  f  de-sides,  out  of  place,  of  missing  soldiers)  ; 

desider-ium,  longing. 
effugio,  escape;  effug-ium,  an  escape  (cf.  profugus). 
ad  verbum,  [added]  to  a  verb;  adverb-ium,  an  adverb. 
inter-lunas,  between  tnoons ;  interlun-ium,  time  of  7iew  moon. 
regis  ta^3^  flight  of  a  king;  le^in^-iam,  fight  of  kings. 

Vowel-stems  lose  their  vowel  before  -ium,  as  colleg-ium,  from 
collega. 

Less  commonly  -nia,  f.,  -nium,  -lium,  -cinium,  n.,  are  added  to 
noun-stems,  but  confused  with  verb-stems  :  as,  — 

pecu,    cattle;    pecu-nia,  property   cottsisting   of   cattle,    money 

(cf.  chattels). 
contdcesco,  hush;  contici-nium,  the  hush  of  night. 
augeo,  increase;  auxi-linm,  help. 
pecu,  cattle;  pecu-lium,  private  property  (cf.  peculor,  implying 

a  noun  f  peculum). 
latro,  robber;  latro-cinium,  robbery  (cf.  latrocinor,  rob,  implying 

an  adj.  flatrocinus). 

3.    Adjectives. 

164.  Derivative  adjectives  are  Nominal  ^^from  nouns  or 
adjectives)  or  Verbal  (as  from  roots  or  verb-stems). 

I.  Nominal. 

a.  -ulus  (-a,  -um)  (after  a  vowel  -olus),  -cuius,  -ellus,  -illus,  make 
an  important  class  of  adjectives,  usually  appropriated  to  one  gender, 
that  of  the  Primitive,  and  used  as  Diminutive  Nouns  :  as, — 
~    rivus,  a  brook ;  riv-ulus,  a  streamlet. 

gladius,  a  sword;  gladi-olus,  a  small  sword. 

£DUu8,  a  son ;  fili-olus,  a  little  son. 
"    filia,  a  daughter;  fili-ola,  a  little  daughter. 

atrium,  a  hall;  atri-olum,  a  little  hall. 

homo,  a  man  ;  homun-culus,  a  dwarf. 


§  164.] 


ADfECTIVES. 


II  I 


"^     aurls,  an  ear ;  auri-cula,  a  little  ear. 

munus,  N.,  a  gift;  munus-culvun,  a  little  gift. 

fpuera  (cf .  puer,  a  boy) ;  puella  (for  fpuer-ula),  a  girl. 

codex,  a  block;  codic-illi,  writing-tablets. 

miser,  wretched;  mis-ellus,  rather  wretched. 

liber,  a  book;  lib-ellus,  a  little  book. 

aureus  (-a,  -woo),  golden ;  aure-olus  (-a,  -\xm),  golden. 

parvus  (-a,  -um),  little;  parv-olus  (later  parv-ulus),  very  small. 

maior  (old  maios),  greater;  maius-culus,  somewhat  larger. 

Remark. cio,  added  to  stems  in  n-,  has  the  same  diminutive 

force,   but  is  added  to  masculines  only :  as,  homuu-cio,  a  dwarj 
(from  homo,  a  man). 

b.  -ades,  m.,  -as,  p.,  -ides,  -ides,  m.,  -is,  -eis,  p.,  -eus,  -eus,  m., 
■"are  added  to  proper  names,  forming  Patronymics,  to  indicate  descent 
or  relationship. 

These,  originally  Greek  adjectives,  have  almost  all  become  nouns 
in  Latin  :  as,  — 

Tyndareus:    Tyndar-ides,    Castor  or   Pollux;   Tyndar-is   (gen. 

-idis),  Helen,  daughter  of  Tyndarus. 
Atlas:  Atlanti-ades,  Mercury;  AUant-ides  (Gr.  pi.),  the  Pleiads. 
Scipio  :   Scipi-ades,  son  of  Scipio. 
Anchises :  Anchisi-ades,  jEneas. 
Theseus :  Thes-ides,  son  of  Theseus. 
Tydeus  :   Tyd-ides,  Diojnedes,  son  of  Tydeus. 
Oileus :  Aiax  Oil-eus,  son  of  Oileus. 

Thaumas:  Thaimianti-as  (gen.  -adis).  Iris,  daughter  of  Thaumas. 
Hesperus  :  Hesper-ides  (from  Hesper-is,  idis),  p.  pi.,  the  daughters 
of  Hesperus,  the  Hesperides. 

c.  anus,  -enus,  -inus;  -as,  -ensis,  -acus  (-acus),  -icus;  -eus 
(generally  shortened  to  -eus),  -eius,  -icius,  form  adjectives  with  the 
sense  of  belonging  to.  -,i>--i>  'm^aX^-^      ^" 

I .    So  from  common  nouns  :  as,  — 

mons  (st.  monti-),  mountain ;  mont-anus,  of  the  mountains. 
ante  lucem,  before  light ;  anteluc-anus,  before  daylight. 
egeo,  lack;  eg-enus,  needy. 
terra,  earth;  terr-enus,  earthly. 


112 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 


[§  164. 


coUia,  hill ;  coll-inus,  of  a  hill. 
— '    libertus,  one" s  freedman ;  libert-inns,  of  the  class  offreedmen. 

vitulus,  a  calf  J  vitul-iua  (sc.  caro),  veal. 

quia,  who  f  cui-as,  of  what  country  ? 

infiirmB,  lowest  j  Tnfim-aa,  of  the  lowest  rank. 
— —  forum,  a  7fiarket-place ;  for-ensis,  of  a  market-place^  or  the  Forum. 

memm,  pure  wine;  mer-acus,  pure. 
civis,  a  citizen ;  civ-icna,  civic^  of  a  citizen. 

femina,  a  woman;  femin-eus,  of  a  woman^  feminine. 

lac,  milk  (st.  lacti-) ;  lact-eus,  milky. 

plebes,  the  commons;  pleb-eiua,  of  the  commons,  plebeian. 

ipaXj&t,  father ;  patr-icma,  patrician. 

2.  But  especially  from  proper  nouns  (names  of  places,  peoples, 
and  persons)  denoting  belonging  to  or  coming  from  :  as,  — 

"^^  Roma  :  Rom-anna,  Roman. 

Sulla :  Sull-anl,  Sulla's  veterans. 

Cyzicua :  Cyzic-eni,  Cyzicenes.,  people  of  Cyzicus. 

Idguria:  lA^ija -mus,  of  Ligidria. 

Arpinum :  Arpin-aa,  of  Arpinum  (cf.  Samnium :   Samnia,  gen. 
-itis,  a  Samnite). 
""^    SicUia  :  Sicili-enaia,  Sicilian. 

Than,  Troy ;  Bi-acua,  Trojan  (a  Greek  form). 

Plato :  Platon-icTia,  Platonic. 

Aquila :  Aquil-iiua»  a  Roman  name;  Aquileia,  a  town  in  Italy. 

3.  Many  derivative  adjectives  with  these  endings  have  by  usage 
become  nouns.     Thus,  — 

"^^^   ailva,  woods;  Silv-anoa,  m.,  a  god  of  the  woods. 
*•*-    membrum,  limb ;  membr-ana,  f.,  skin. 

Aemilia  (gena)  :  Aemili-anua,  m.,  name  of  Scipio  Africanus. 

laniua,  butcher ;  lani-ena,  f.,  a  butchery's  stall. 

fAufidma  (Aufidua),  m.  ;  Aufidi-entia,  a  Roman  name. 

incola,  an  inhabitant ;  inquil-inua,  u.,  a  lodger. 

caecua,  blind;  Caec-ina,  used  as  m.,  a  Roman  name. 

gallua,  a  cock ;  gall-ina,  f.,  a  hen. 

TVLO,fall  (no  noun  existing);  ru-ina,  f..  a  fall. 

doctor,  teacher;  doctr-ina,  f.,  learning. 


§164.] 


ADJECTIVES. 


113 


d.  -alia,  -aria,  -ilia,  -flia,  ulia,  -nua,  pertaining  to,  of  various 
modes  of  relation  or  possession,  but  not  used  as  Gentile  adjectives  : 
as,— 

Datura,  nature;  natiir-alia,  natural. 

populua,  a  people;  vov^-axis,  fellow-countryman. 

patruua,  uncle;  patru-ilia,  cousin. 

hoatia,  an  enemy ;  hoat-ilia,  hostile. 

cmnia,  chariot;  aella  cur-ulia,  curule  chair. 

ver,  spring;  ver-nua,  vernal. 

e.  -ter  (-trla),  -eater  (-eatria),  -timua,  -emua,  -ornua,  -temua 
(-tumua),  belonging  to,  oi  places,  times,  and  the  like  (but  some  are 
general  adjectives). 

palua,  a  marsh;  palua-ter,  of  the  marshes. 

pedea,  a  footman  ;  pedea-ter,  of  the  foot. 

aex  menaea,  six  months;  aemea-tria,  semi-annual. 

silva,  a  wood;  ailv-eater,  ailv-eatria,  woody. 

finia,  an  end;  flm-timua,  neighboring,  on  the  borders. 

heri  (old  hesl),  yesterday  ;  hea-temua,  of  yesterday. 

diS,  long  (in  time);  diu-tumua,  lasting. 

hodie,  to-day;  hodi-emua,  of  to-day. 

diea,  day ;  di-umua,  daily. 

f.  -atua,  -itua,  -utua,  provided  with,  make  adjectives  with  parti- 
cipial ending,  formed  from  nouns,  but  in  reference  to  an  imaginary 
verb-stem  (cf.  the  English  horned,  crested,  hooked). 

barba,  a  beard;  barb-atua,  bearded. 

amia,  an  ear;  aur-itua,  long-eared. 

veraua,  a  turning;  vera-utua,  crafty,  adroit  (full  of  turns). 

So  -tua,  added  directly  to  nouns  without  reference  to  any  verb  : 
as,— 

fonna,  death;  funea-tua,  deadly. 

honor,  honor;  honea-toa,  honorable. 

iBvoT,  favor;  faua-tua  (for  ^tarves-tos),  favorable. 

g'  -«w.  -ioB,  -Iceua,  -icioa,  -aneua  (-neus),  -ticua,  made  of  or 
t-^BELONGiNG  TO,  form  adjectives  of  various  meanings  :  as,  — 
9X0X00.,  gold ;  dLUi-euB,  golden. 
V^t^^,  a  father;  paXx-ins,  paternal. 
uxor,  a  wife;  oxor-iua,  uxorious. 


114 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 


[§  164. 


ro£»,  a  rose  ;  ros-aceus,  of  roses. 

later,  a  brick ;  later-icius,  of  brick. 

praesens,  presents  praesent-aneus,  operating  instantly. 

extra,  without;  extr-aneus,  external. 

sub  terra,  underground;  subterr-aneus,  subterranean. 

saliz,  willow :  salig-neus,  of  willow. 

volo,  fly  ;  vola-ticus,  winged  (volatus,  a  flight). 

domus,  a  house;  domes-ticus,  of  the  house.,  domestic. 

silva,  a  wood;  silva-ticus,  sylvan. 

h.  -alius,  -torius  (-sorius),  belonging  to,  make  many  adjectives 
often  fixed  as  nouns  (see  /). 

ordo,  rank^  order ;  ordin-arius,  regular. 

aigentum,  silver;  argent-arius,  of  silver  or  money. 

extra,  outside;  extr-arius,  stranger. 

meritus,  earned;  meri-torius,  profitable. 

devorsus,  turned  aside;  devor-sorius,  of  an  inn  (cf.  i.  5). 

i.  Many  fixed  forms  of  the  above  adjective  suffixes  make  nouns, 
»more  or  less  regularly  used  in  particular  senses  :  as, — 

1.  -axixxa  (jtgvXdir),  person  employed  about  a?iy thing :  as, — 
argent-arius,  silversmith^  broker  (from  argentum). 

2.  -Bxi?i,  thing  connected  with  something :  as, — 

aren-ariae,  f.  pi.,  saftdpits  (from  arena,  sand). 
Asin-aria,    f.,  name  of  a  play  (from  asinus,  ass). 

3.  -arium  (regular),  place  of  a  thing  (with  a  few  of  more  general 
^^  meaning)  :  as,  — 

aer-arium,  n.,  treasury  (from  aes,  copper). 
tepid-arium,  n.,  warm  bath  (from  tepidus,  warm). 
sud-arium,  n.,  a  towel  (cf.  sudo,  -are,  sweat). 
,  sal-arium,  n.,  salt  money,  salary  (from  sal,  salt). 
calend-arium,  n.,  a  note-book  (from  calendae,  calends). 

4.  -toria  (-soria)  :  as,  — 

Agita-toria,  f.,  a  play  of  Plautus,  The  Carter  (from  agitator). 
vor-Boria,  f.,  a  tack  (from  versus,  a  turn). 

5.  -torium   (-sorium)   (regular),  place  of  action  (with  a  few  of 
more  general  meaning)  :  as,  — 


§  164.] 


ADfECTIVES. 


115 


devor-sorium,  n.,  an  inn  (as  from  devorto,  turn  aside). 
audi-torium,  n.,  a  lecture-room  (as  from  audio,  hear). 
ten-torium,  n.,  a  tent  (as  from  tendo,  stretch). 
tec-torium,  n.,  plaster  (as  from  tego,  tectus,  cover). 
por-torium,  n.,  toll  (cf.  porto,  carry,  and  portus,  harbor). 

6.  -He,  animal-stall :  as,  — 

bov-fle,  N.,  cattle-stall  (bos,  bovis,  ox,  cow). 
ov-fle,  sheep-fold  (ovis,  st.  ovi-,  sheep). 

7.  -al  for  -ale,  thing  connected  with  the  primitive  :  as, 

capit-al,  N.,  head-dress,  capital  crime  (caput,  head). 
penetr-ale  (esp.  in  pi.),  n.,  ijiner  apartment  (cf.  penetro). 
Saturn-aUa,  n.  pi.  (the  regular  form  for  names  of  festivals),  feast 

of  Saturn  (from  Saturnus). 

8.  -etum,  N.  (cf.  -atus,  -utus,  st^f),  place  of  a  thing;  as, — 
querc-etum,  n.,  oak  grove  (from  quercus,  oak). 
Argn-etum,  n.,  The  Clay-pit  (from  argilla,  clay). 

9.  -cus  (sometimes  with  inserted  i.  -icus),  -icus,  in  any  one  of  the 
genders,  with  various  meanings  :  as,  — 

vfli-cus,  M.,  vili-ca,  f.,  a  steward  {stewardess)  (from  viUsi,  farm- 
house). 

fabr-ica,  f.,  a  workshop  (from  faber,  workman). 

bubul-cus,  M.,  ox-tender  (from  bub-ulus,  dim.,  cf.  bos,  ox). 

cant-icum.  n.,  song  (from  cantus,  act  of  singing). 

rubr-ica,  f.,  red  paint  (from  ruber,  red). 

10.  -eus,  -ea,  -eum,  with  various  meanings  :  as, 

alv-eus,  M.,  a  trough  (from  alvus,  the  belly). 
capr-ea,  f.,  a  roe  (from  caper,  he-goat). 

-    flamm-eum,  n.,  a  bridal  veil  (from  flamma,yf«w^,  from  its  color). 

11.  -ium,  confounded  with  the  primary  suffix  (see  §  163./). 

12.  -ter  (stem  tro-)  and  -ter  (stem  tri-),  -aster  -ester:  as,— 
Aus-ter,  m.,  South  ivind  (from  uro,  burn). 
eques-ter,  m.,  knight  (for  fequet-ter). 

sequ-ester,  m.,  a  stake-holder  (from  derivative  of  seciuox,  follow). 
ole-aster,  m.,  wild  olive  (from  olea)  (cf.  surd-aster,  from  surdus). 


lie 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 


[§164 


[^ 


k.  -osus,  -(o)leii8,  -(o)lentus,  full  of,  prone  to  :  as,  — 
flnctus,  wave;  fluctu-osus,  billowy. 
~~    forma,  beauty;  form-osus,  beautiful. 

peiiculum,  peril;  pericul-osus,  full  of  danger. 
ipesXiB,  pest ;  pesti-lens,  -pesM-lentaa,  pestilent. 
vinum,  wine;  vino-lentus,  vin-osus,  given  to  drink. 

II.    Verbal. 

/.  -ax,  -idus,  -ulus,  -vus-  (-uus,  -ivus,  -tivus),  prone  to,  fitted 
TO,  apparently^  added  to  verb-stems,  form  adjectives,  to  express 
the  action  of  a  verb  as  a  quality  or  tendency,  -aa:,  denotes  a 
faulty  or  aggressive  tendency  ;  -tivus  is  oitener  passive.     Thus, — 

pugno,fg/it;  pugn-ax,  pugnacious. 

audeo,  dare;  aud-ax,  bold. 

cupio,  desire;  cup-idus,  eager. 

bibo,  drink;  bib-ulus,  thirsty  Cas  dry  earth,  etc.). 

protero,  trample;  pxo\«t^TG^violent,  wanton. 

noceo,  do  harm;  noc-uus  (noc-ivus),  hurtful,  injurious. 

capio,  take ;  cap-tivus,  captive,  M.,  a  prisoner  of  war. 

lecidio,  fall  back;  recid-ivus,  restored. 

m.  -ilia,  -bills,  -ius,  -tills  (-sills),  express  passive  qualities,  but 
occasionally  active  :  as,  — 

frango  (frag),  break;  frag-ilis,  frail,  breakable. 

nosco  (gno),  know;  no-bills,  well  known,  famous. 

eximo,  take  out,  select;  exim-ius,  choice,  rare  (cf.  e-greg-ius). 

ago,  drive;  ag-ilis,  active. 

habeo,  hold;  hab-ills,  handy. 

alo,  nourish;  al-tills,  fattened. 

n.  -minus,  -mnus,  are  properly  participial  (cf.  Greek  -tuvm,  and 
ami-mini).  They  form  a  few  nouns  in  which  the  participial  force 
is  discernible  :  as,  — 

fe,  produce ;  fe-mina,  woman  (the  producer). 
alo,  nourish;   alu-mnus,  a  foster  child,  nursling. 

o.  -ndus  (the  same  as  the  gerund-ending)  forms  a  few  active  or 
reflexive  adjectives  :  as,  — 

1  The  forms  felt  as  verbal  are,  like  the  nominal  forms,  derived  from 
noun-stems,  and  the  two  are  constantly  confounded. 


§  164.] 


ADfECTIVES. 


117 


i- 


sequor,  follow;  secu-ndus,  second  {iki^  following),  favorable. 
roto,  whirl  (from  rota,  wheel)  ;  rotu-ndus,  round  (whirling).i 

/.  -bundus,  -cundus,  with   a  participial  meaning,  but  denoting 
continuance  of  the  act  or  quality. 

locus,  a  jest;  iu-cimdus,  pleasant  (cf.   iuvo,  -are). 

vito,  shun;  vita-bundus,  dodging  about. 

tremo,  tremble;  treme-bundus,  trembling. 

morior,  die;  mori-bundus,  at  the  point  of  death. 

for,  speak;  fi-cundus,  eloquent. 

fe,  produce;  fe-c\m.A\i&,  fruitful. 

So,  ira,  anger;  ira-cundus,  irascible  (cf.  ira-scor). 


III.     Irregular  Derivatives. 

q.  The  primary  suffix  on,  (nom.  -o)  is  used  as  secondary  to  form 
nouns  (originally  adjectives),  denoting  possessed  of  and  so  express- 
ing a  character,  often  used  as  proper  names  ^  :  as,  — 

epulae,  a  feast;  epul-o,  a  feaster. 

nasus,  a  nose;  nas-o,  with  a  large  nose  (also  as  a  proper  name). 

-volus  (in  bene-volus),  wishing;  vol-ones  (pi.),  volunteers. 

houa,  forehead ;  front-o,  big-head  (also  as  a  proper  name). 

So,  curia,  a  curia;  cuii-o,  head  of  a  curia  (also  as  proper  name). 

restis,  a  rope ;  resti-o,  a  rope-maker. 

t  vespertilis,  of  the  evening;  vespertili-o,  a  bat. 

r.  Rarely  suffixes  are  added  to  compound  stems  imagined,  but  not 
used  in  their  compound  form  :  as,  — 

ad-verb-iim:i,  adverb;  ad,  to,  and  verbum,  verb,  but  without  the 

intervening  fadverbus. 
liti-fond-imn,  large  estate ;  latus,  wide,  fundus,  estate. 
su-ove-taur-ilia,  a  sacrifice  of  a  swine,  a  sheep,  and  a  bull;  sus, 

swine,  ovis,  sheep,  taurus,  bull,  where  the  primitive  would  be 

impossible  in  Latin. 

'  Compare  volvendis  mensibas,  in  the  revolving  months  (Virg.). 
*This  sufiix  is  the  same  as  in  §  162.  c,  but  not  connected  with  a  verb. 


\ 


ii8 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 


IV.    DERIVATION   OF   VERBS. 


[§§  165.  166. 


165.  Verbs  may  be  classed  as  Primitive  or  Derivative. 

1.  Primitive  verbs  are  those  inherited  by  the  Latin 
from  the  parent  speech. 

2.  Derivative  verbs  are  those  formed  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Latin  as  a  separate  language.  They  are  of 
two  main  classes  :  — 

a.  Denominative  verbs,  formed  from  nouns  or  adjectives. 

b.  Verbs  apparently  derived  from  other  verbs  (see  §  167). 

X.    Denominative  Verbs. 

166.  Verbs  were  formed  in  Latin  from  almost  every 
form  of  noun-  and  adjective-stem. 

a.  I.  Verbs  of  the  first  conjugation  are  formed  directly  from 
a-stems,  regularly  with  a  transitive  meaning  :  as,  fuga,  flight;  fugo, 
put  to  flight;  belliger,  belligero  (not  bellum  and  gero,  which  would 
be  impossible). 

Note.  —  Originally  particular  forms  of  stem  formed  particular  conjuga- 
tions of  verbs,  but  from  changes  of  stem  and  from  various  cross-analogies 
the  relation  between  conjugations  and  stem-forms  became  entirely  confused. 
Thus  poena  should  make  t  punare,  but  it  really  makes  punire,  as  if  an  i-stem 
(as  in  impuni-s) ;  servus  makes  servare  in  one  sense,  servire  in  another. 

2.  Many  verbs  of  the  First  Conjugation  (commonly  transitive)  are 
formed  from  o-stems,  changing  the  o-  into  a-.     Thus,  — 

stimulus,  a  goad  (stem  stiinulo-);  stiinulo  (-axe),  incite. 
aecus,  even  (stem  aequo-);  aequo  (-are),  make  even. 
hibemus,  of  the  winter  (stem  hibemo-) ;  hibemo,  pass  the  winter. 
albus,  white  (stem  albo-);  albo  (-are),  whiten. 
plus,  pure  (stem  pic-) ;  pio  (-are),  expiate. 

3.  A  few  verbs,  generally  neuter,  are  formed  by  analogy  from  con- 
sonant- and  u-  stems,  adding  a  to  the  stem  :  as,  — 

vigil,  awake ;  vigilo  (-are),  watch. 
exsul,  an  exile;  ezsulo  (-are),  be  in  exile. 


§  167.] 


DERIVATION  OF  VERBS. 


119 


hlemps  (stem  hiem-),  winter;  hiemo  (-are),  pass  the  winter. 
aestus,  tide^  seething;  aestuo  (-are),  surge.,  boil. 
levis  (stem  levi-),  light;  levo  (-are),  lighten. 

b.  A  few  verbs  of  the  Second  Conjugation  (generally  intransitive) 
are  recognizable  as  formed  from  noun-stems,  but  most  are  inherited, 
or  the  primitive  noun-stem  is  lost :  as,  — 

albus,  white ;  albeo,  be  white  (cf.  albo,  -are,  whiten^  under  a.  2). 

canuB  (stem  cano-),  hoary ;  caneo,  be  hoary. 

tumulus,  hill  (implying  f  tiunus,  swelling) ;  tumeo,  swell. 

pro-vidus,  foreseeing ;  pro-video,  foresee. 

But  moneo,  remind;  cf.  memini,  remember. 

algeo,  be  cold;  cf.  algidus,  cold. 

c.  Some  verbs  in  -uo,  -uere  are  formed  from  noun-stems  in  u- 
where  probably  an  i  has  been  lost :  as,  — 

Bt^Xxis,  position ;  ^taiXxxo,  set  up. 
metus,  fear;  metuo,  fear. 

d.  Many  verbs  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation  are  formed  from  real  or 
imagined   i-stems  :  as,  — 

moles  (-is),  mass;  molior,  -iri,  toil. 
finis,  end;  finio,  -ire,  bound. 
sitis,  thirst;  sitio,  -ire,  thirst. 
stabilis,  stable;  stabilio,  -re,  establish. 

Some  wrongly  from  other  stems  treated  as  if  i-stems  :  as,  — 

bulla,  bubble;  bullio,  -iie,  boil. 

condus,  storekeeper ;  condio,  -ire,  preserve. 

insanus,  mad;  insanio,  -ire,  rave. 

^estas,  gesture ;  gestio,  -ire,  show  wild  longing. 

custos,  guardian;  custodio,  -ire,  guard. 


a.    Verbs  from  other  Verbs. 


167.  The  following  classes  of  verbs  regularly  derived 
from  other  verbs  have  special  meanings  connected  with 
their  terminations. 


I20 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 


[§  167. 


/ 


a.  Inceptives  or  Inchoatives  add  -sco  to  the  present  stem  of 
verbs.  They  denote  the  beginning  of  an  action.  Of  some  there  is 
no  simple  verb  in  existence.     Thus,  — 

caleo,  be  warm  j  csile-sco,  grow  warm. 

labo,  totter ;  laba-sco,  begin  to  totter. 

sclo,  know ;  sci-sco,  determine. 

cupio,  desire  J  con-cupi-sco,  conceive  a  desire  for. 

alo,  feed  J  ale-sco,  grow. 

So,  ira-scor,  ^<?/  ^ngry ;  cf.  ira-tus. 

ivLvene-BCo,  grow  young ;  cf.  inverna,  youftg  man. 

vespera-scit,  ii  is  getting  late  j  cf.  vesper,  evening. 

Note.  —  Inceptives  properly  have  only  the  present  stem,  but  many  use 
the  perfect  and  supine  systems  of  simple  verbs  :  as,  calesco,  calui ;  profi- 
ciscor,  profectus. 

b.  Intensives  or  Iteratives  end  in  -to  or  -ito  (rarely  -so),  and 
/^    denote  "3^  forcible  or  repeated  z.Q\\on  :  as, — 

iacio,  throw  J  iac-to,  hurl. 

dico,  say  J  dict-ito,  keep  on  saying. 

quatio,  shake;  quas-so,  shatter. 

They  are  of  the  first  conjugation,  and  are  properly  denominative, 
derived  from  the  participle  in  -tus  (stem  to-). 

c.  Another  form  of  Intensives  —  sometimes  called  Meditatives,  or 
^  verbs  of  practice  —  ends  in  -esso  (rarely  -isao).    These  denote  energy 

or  eagerness  of  action  :  as,  — 

capio,  take  J  cap-esso,  lay  hold  on. 
facio,  a,';  fac-esso,  do  (with  energy). 
peto,  seek  J  pet-isso,  seek  (eagerly). 

These  are  of  the  third  conjugation,  usually  having  the  perfect  and 
supine  of  the  fourth  :  as,  — 

lacesso,  lacessere,  lacessivi,  lacessitum,  provoke. 

d.  Diminutives  (derived  from  real  or  supposed  diminutive  nouns) 
end  in  -illo,  and  denote  a  feeble  or  petty  action  :  as,  — 
-     ca villa,  raillery  j  cav-illor,  jest. 

canto,  sing;  cant-illo,  chirp  or  warble. 

e.  Desideratives  end  in  -turio  (-surlo),  and  express  longing  or 
wishing.  They  are  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  and  only  three  are  in 
common  use :  — 


§168.] 


COMPOUND  WORDS. 


121 


emo,  buy;  emp-turio,  want  to  buy. 
edo,  eat;  e-surio,  be  hungry. 
-^      pario,  bring  forth;  par-turio,  be  in  labor. 

Note.  —  Desideratives  are  derived  from  some  noun  of  agency  •  as 
empturio,  from  emptor,  buyer.  Viso,  go  to  see,  is  an  inherited  desiderative  of 
a  different  formation. 

3^    Compound  Words. 

A  Compound  Word  is  one  whose  stem  is  made  up  of 
two  or  more  simple  stems. 

Only  noun-stems  can  be  thus  compounded.  A  preposition,  how- 
ever, often  becomes  attached  to  a  verb. 

168.  New  stems  are  formed  by  composition,  as  follows  :i 

a.  The  second  part  is  simply  added  to  the  first :  as,  — 

8u-ove-taurilia  (sua.  ovis,  taurus),  the  sacrifice  of  a  hog,  sheep, 
and  bull  {ci.  %  16^,  r).  ^  ^' 

septen-decim  (septem,  decern),  seventeen. 

b.  The  first  part  modifies  the  second  as  an  adjective  or  adverb 
{Determinative  Compounds)  :  as,  — 

lati-fundium  (latus,  fundus),  a  large  landed  estate. 

c.  The  first  part  has  the  force  of  a  case,  and  the  second  a  verbal 
force  {Objective  Compounds)  :  as,  — 

agri-cola  (ager,  fcola  akin  to  colo),  a  farmer. 
anni-ger  (arma,  fger  akin  to  gero),  armor-bearer. 
comi-cen  (comu,  fcen  akin  to  cano),  horn-blower. 
cami-fex  (caro,  ffex  akin  to  facio),  executioner. 

1  In  these  compounds  only  the  second  part  receives  inflection,  commonly 
the  proper  inflection  of  the  last  stem  ;  but,  as  this  kind  of  composition  is 
older  than  mflection.  the  compounded  stem  sometimes  has  an  inflection  of\ 
Its  own  (as,  comicen,    ^:inis;  lucifer,  -feri;   iudex,  -dicis),  from  stems  not 
occurrmg  m  Latm.     Especially  do  compound  adjectives  take  the  form  of 
i-stems :  as,  ammus,  exanimis;  norma,  abnormis  (see  note,  p.  21).    In  com- 
position  stems   regularly   have  their   uninflected  form  :    as,  igni-spicium 
dtvtmng  by  fire.     But  a-  and  a-stems  weaken  the  final  vowel  of  the  stem  to 
1-,  as  in  ah-pes  (from  ala) ;  and  i-  is  so  common  a  termination  of  compounded 
stems,  that  it  is  often  added  to  stems  which  do  not  properly  have  it  •  as 
foeden-fragus  (for  tfoeder-fragas :  foedus,  tfragus),  treaty-breaking. 


122 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 


[§§  169,  170- 


d.  Compounds  of  the  above  kinds,  in  which  the  last  word  is  a 
noun,  acquire  the  signification  of  adjectives,  xviftz-mxi^  possessed  of  \\i^ 
quality  denoted  {Possessive  Compounds)  :  as,  — 

ill-pea  (ala,  pes),  wing-footed. 

magn-animus  (magnus,  animus),  great-souled. 

con-cors  (con-,  cor),  harmonious. 

an-ceps  (amb-,  caput),  double  (having  a  head  at  both  ends). 

Note.  —  Many  compounds  of  the  above  classes  appear  only  in  the  form 
of  some  further  derivative,  the  proper  compound  being  not  found  in  Latin. 

169.  In  many  apparent  compounds,  complete  words  — 
not  stems  —  have  grown  together  in  speech. 

These  are  not  strictly  compounds  in  the  etymological  sense.  They 
are  called  Syntactic  Co?npounds.     Examples  are  — 

a.  Compounds  of  facio,  facto,  with  an  actual  or  formerly  existing 
noun-stem  confounded  with  a  verbal  stem  in  e-.  These  are  Causa- 
tive in  force  :  as,  consue-facio,  habituate  (cf.  consue-sco,  become 
accustomed)  ;    cale-facio,    cale-facto,   to  heat  (cf.  cale-sco,  grow 

warm). 

b.  An  adverb  or  noun  combined  with  a  verb :  as,  bene-dico  (bene 
dico),  to  bless  J  sat-ago  (satis  ago),  to  be  busy  enough. 

c.  Many  apparent  compounds  :  as,  fide-iubeo  (fidei  iubeo),  to 
give  surety;  man-suetus  (manui  suetus),  tame;  luppiter  (flus- 
pater);  Marci-por  (Marci  puer),  slave  of  Marcus. 

d.  A  few  phrases  forced  into  the  inflections  of  nouns  :  as,  — 
^xo-cov\sxil,  proconsul  (for  pro  consule,  instead  of  a  consul). 
trium-vir,  triumvir  (singular  from  trium  vironim). 
septen-trio,  the  Bear,  a  constellation  (supposed  singular  of  septem 

tiiones,  The  Seven  Oxen). 

170.  Many  syntactic  compounds  are  formed  by  prefix- 
ing a  Particle  to  some  other  part  of  speech  :  — 

a.  Prepositions  are  prefixed  to  Verbs  or  Adjectives  and  in  these 
compounds  retain  their  original  adverbial  sense  :  ^  as,  — 

1  The  prepositions  sometimes,  however,  especially  ad,  in,  circum,  trans, 
have  their  ordinary  force  as  prepositions,  and  govern  the  case  of  a  noun  : 
as,  transire  flumen,  to  cross  a  river  (see  §  239.  b.  Rem.). 


§  170.] 


COMPOUND  WORDS. 


123 


a,  ab,  AWAY  :  au-ferre  (ab-fero),  to  take  away. 

ad,  TO,  TOWARDS  I  af-feire  (ad-fero),  to  bring. 

ante,  before  :  ante-ferre,  to  prefer;  ante-ceUere,  to  excel. 

circum,  around  :  circum-miinire,  to  fortify  completely. 

com-,  con-  (cum),  together  or  forcibly  :  con-ferre,  to  bring 

together;  col-locare,  to  set  firm. 
de,  DOWN,  utterly  :  de-spicere,  despise;  destniere,  destroy. 
e,  ex,  out:  ef-ferre  (ec-fero),  to  carry  forth,  uplift. 
in  (with  verbs),  in,  on,  against  :  in-ferre,  to  bear  against. 
inter,  between,  to  pieces  :  inter-rumpere,  to  interrupt. 
Ob,  TOWARDS,  to  MEET  :  of-ferre,  to  offer;  ob-venire,  to  7neet. 
sub,  UNDER  :  sub-struere,  to  build  beneath. 
super,    UPON,    over   and    above  :    super-fluere,   to  overflow; 

superstes,  a  survivor. 

Note.  —  In  these  compounds  short  a  of  the  root  is  weakened  to  i  before 
one  consonant,  to  a  before  two  :  as,  facio,  conficio,  confectus ;  iacio,  eicio, 
eiectus.     But  long  a  is  retained  :  as,  peractus. 

b.  Verbs  are  also  compounded  with  the  following  inseparable 
particles,  which  do  not  appear  as  prepositions  in  Latin  :  — 

amb-  (am-,  an-),  around  :  amb-ire,  to  go  about  (cf.  d/x<^t,  about). 
dis-,  di-,  asunder,  apart:  dis-cedere,  to  depart  (cf.  duo,  two). 
per-,  forward  :  por-tendere,  to  hold  forth,  predict  (cf.  porro, 

forth). 
red-,  re-,  back,  again  :  red-ire,  to  return;  re-clSdere,  to  open 

(from  claudo,  shut)  ;  re-ficere,  to  repair  (make  again), 
sed-,  se-,  apart:  se-cemo,  to  separate  (cf.  sed,  btit). 

c.  An  Adjective  is  sometimes  modified  by  an  adverbial  prefix. 

Of  these,  per  (less  commonly  prae),  very ;  sub,  somewhat;  in-, 
not,  are  regular,  and  may  be  prefixed  to  almost  any  adjective  :  as,  — 
per-magnus,  very  large.  prae-longus,  very  long. 

sub-rusticus,  rather  clownish.  in-finitus,  boundless. 

Note.  —  Per  and  sub,  in  these  senses,  are  also  prefixed  to  verbs  :  as, 
perterreo,  terrify  ;  sub-rideo,  smile.  In  ignosco,  in-  appears  to  be  the  nega- 
tive prefix. 

d.  Many  Verbals  are  found  compounded  with  a  preposition,  like 
tl  2  verbs  to  which  they  correspond.     Thus, — 

per-fuga,  deserter;  cf.  per-fugio. 
tradux,  vine-branch ;  cf.  trans-duco. 


3'^ 


I 

.     I 

j 


124  INTRODUCTORY  NOTE. 

PART   SECOND.  — USE   OF   WORDS 

(SYNTAX). 


INTRODUCTORY    NOTE. 

The  study  of  formal  grammar  arose  at  a  late  period  in  the  history  of 
language,  and  deals  with  language  as  fully  developed.  The  terms  of  Syntax 
correspond  accordingly  to  the  logical  habits  of  thought  that  have  grown  up 
at  such  a  period,  and  have  therefore  a  logical  as  well  as  a  simply  grammati- 
cal meaning.  But  Syntax  as  thus  developed  is  not  essential  to  language. 
A  form  of  words — like  6  puerum  pulcrum  !  oh  !  beautiful  boy  —  may  express 
a  thought,  and  in  some  languages  might  even  be  a  sentence,  while  it  does 
not  logically  declare  anything,  and  does  not,  strictly  speaking,  make  what 
we  call  a  sentence  at  all. 

In  the  fully  developed  methods  of  expression  to  which  we  are  almost 
exclusively  accustomed,  the  unit  of  expression  is  the  Sentence  i;  that  is, 
the  completed  statement,  with  its  distinct  Subject  and  Predicate.  Origi- 
nally every  sentence  is  simple.  But  two  simple  sentences  may  be  used 
together,  without  the  subordination  of  either,  to  express  a  more  complex 
form  of  thought  than  can  be  denoted  by  one  alone.  This  is  parataxis 
(arrangement  side  by  side).  In  time,  two  sentences,  thus  habitually  used 
in  connection,  come  to  be  regularly  associated  with  each  other,  in  certain 
relations,  as  parts  of  one  logical  idea,  and  the  one  is  felt  to  depend  upon 
the  other.  This  is  syntaxis  (arrangement  together).  In  this  way,  through 
various  courses  of  development,  which  correspond  to  the  growth  of  our 
habitual  forms  of  thought,  there  are  produced  various  forms  of  complex 
sentences.  Thus,  timeo  ne  id  accidat  was  originally  two  simple  sentences  :  / 
fear.  Let  that  not  happen  !  and  these,  becoming  attached,  formed  the  com- 
plex sentence  :  I  fear  (lest)  that  may  happen.  The  results  of  these  processes 
constitute  the  subject-matter  of  Syntax  as  shown  in  the  annexed  Outline. 

I.  A  Sentence  may  be  either  Simple  or  Compound :  viz.,  — 

(  Containing  a  single  statement  (Subject  and 
I.  simple:  I  Predicate)  (§  .80). 

a.  Containing   two    or    more    Co-ordinate 
Clauses  (§  180.  a). 
.  Modified  by  Subordinate  Clauses  {com- 
plex) (§  180.  b). 

1  The  meaning  of  Sentence  is  "  Thought "  (sententia,  from  sentire).  The  gram- 
matical form  of  the  seirtc'"^  is  the  form  in  which  the  thought  is  expressed. 


2.  Compound 


§171.] 


DEFINITIONS. 


125 


II.  The  Essential  Parts  of  the  Sentence  are  — 


..  Th.  SUBJECT  :  con.  S  "  f]'"""  "  "^  equivalent  (§  174.  i). 

-  "S  <7.  Pronoun    contamed    m    verb-ending    (§ 

si^mgo  ^  174-2). 

Ca.  Neuter  (intransitive)  Verb  (§  175.  a). 
2.  The  Predicate:!  b.  Copula  with  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjec- 
consisting  of  |  tive  (§  172.  note). 

If.  Verb  with  Object  (§§  175.  ^,  177). 

III.  The  Subject  and  Predicate  may  be  Modified  as  follows  :  — 


I.  The  Noun  {Subject 
or  Object)  by 


a.  Noun  in  Apposition  (§  184). 

b.  Adjective  or  Participle  (§  186). 

-l  c.  Noun  in  Oblique  Case  (§  178.  a,  b). 

I  d.  Preposition  with  its  case  (§  260). 

I  ^.  Relative  Clause  (§  180.  c). 


(a.  Adverb   or   Adverbial    Phrase    (§§    179, 
2.  The    Verb    {predi-\  207). 

cate)  by  [  b.  Predicate  Adjective  (§  191). 

Lf.  Subordinate  Clause  (§  180.  b). 


IV.  Hence 


I 


a.  Rules  of  Agreement  {the  Four  Concords)  (§  182). 

b.  Rules  of  Government  {Constrttction  of  Cases)  {^^  213  fE.). 


THE  SENTENCE. 

I.    Definitions. 

171.  A  Sentence  is  a  form  of  words  which  contains  a 
Statement,  a  Question,  an  Exclamation,  or  a  Command. 

a.  A  sentence  in  the  form  of  a  Statement  is  called  a  Declarative 
Sentence  :  as,  ecus  currit,  the  horse  runs. 

b.  A  sentence  in  the  form  of  a  Question  is  called  an  Interroga- 
tive Sentence  :  as,  ecusne  currit  ?  does  the  horse  run  ? 

c.  A  sentence  in  the  form  of  an  Exclamation  is  called  an  Exclam- 
atory Sentence  :  as,  quam  celeriter  currit  ecus !  how  fast  the 
horse  runs  ! 

d.  A  sentence  in  the  form  of  a  Command,  an  Exhortation,  or  an 
i:ntreaty  is  called  an  Imperative  Sentence  :  as,  currat  ecus,  let 
lyhe  horse  run;  i,  cune  per  Alpes,  go  run  across  the  Alps. 

I 


126 


THE  SENTENCE. 


[§§  172-174- 


172.  Every  sentence  consists  of  a  Subject  and  a 
Predicate. 

The  Subject  of  a  sentence  is  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  of. 

The  Predicate  is  that  which  is  said  of  the  Subject. 

Thus,  in  ecus  currit,  the  horse  runs^  ecus  is  the  subject,  and 
currit  the  predicate. 

Note,  —  Every  complete  sentence  must  contain  a  subject  (§  174)  and  a 
verb.  The  verb  itself  is  usually  the  predicate,  but  when  any  form  of  sum  is 
used  simply  to  connect  a  noun  or  adjective  as  an  attribute  with  the  sub- 
ject, such  word  is  called  the  predicate  noun  or  adjective,  and  sum  is  known  as 
the  copula  (or  connective)  (§  176.  a).  Thus,  in  Caesar  consul  erat,  Ccesar 
was  consul,  Caesar  is  the  subject,  consul  the  predicate  noun,  and  erat  the 
copula. 

But  sum  in  the  sense  of  exist  makes  a  complete  predicate  alone.  It  is 
then  called  the  substantive  verb  :  as,  sunt  viri  fortes,  there  are  (exist)  brave 
men. 

2.    Subject  and  Predicate. 

173.  I.  (Rule  13.)  The  Subject  of  a  Finite  verb  is 
in  the  Nominative  Case  :  as,  — 

ecus  currit,  the  horse  runs.  reglna  sedet,  the  queen  sits. 

2.  (Rule  36.)  The  Subject  of  an  Infinitive  is  in  the 
Accusative  (see  §  240./). 

Note.  —  A  finite  verb  is  a  verb  in  the  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  or  Impera- 
tive.   These  are  called  finite  moods  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Infinitive. 

174.  I.  The  Subject  of  a  sentence  is  usually  a  Noun  or 
some  word  or  phrase  used  as  a  Noun  :  as,  — 

humanum  est  errare,  to  err  is  human. 

quaeritur  num  mors  malum  sit,  the  question  is  whether  death  is  an  evil. 

venit,  incertum  est  unde,  he  came,  where  from  is  uncertain. 

2.  But  in  Latin  the  subject  may  be  implied  in  the  ter- 
mination of  the  verb  (see  §  206.  a,  b)  :  as, — 

sede-mus,  7ve  sit.  curri-tis,  you  run.  inqui-t,  says  he 


§§  I75»  176.] 


PREDICATE  NOUN. 


127 


.  175.    Verbs  are  either  Intransitive  or  Transitive. 

a.  An  Intransitive  (or  Neuter)  verb  contains  in  itself  an  entire 
statement :  as,  — 

cado,  I  fall  (am  falling). 

sol  lucet,  the  sun  is  shining. 

sunt  viri  fortes,  there  are  brave  men. 

b.  A  Transitive  (or  Active)  verb  has  or  requires  a  Direct  Object 
to  complete  its  sense  (see  §  177):  as, — 

fratrem  cecidit,  he  slew  his  brother. 

Note  i.  — Among  transitive  verbs  F'actitative  Verbs  are  sometimes 
distinguished  as  a  separate  class.  These  state  an  act  which  produces  the 
thing  expressed  by  the  word  which  completes  their  sense.  Thus,  mensam 
fecit,  he  made  a  table  (which  was  not  in  existence  before),  is  distinguished 
from  mensam  percussit,  he  struck  a  table  (which  already  existed). 

Note  2.  —  A  transitive  verb  may  often  be  used  absolutely  without  any 
object  expressed:  as,  arat,  he  is  ploughing,  where  the  verb  does  not  cease 
to  be  transitive  because  the  object  is  left  indefinite,  as  we  see  by  adding,  — 
quid,  what?  agrum  suum,  his  land. 


3.    Predicate  Noun. 

176.  An  intransitive  verb  is  often  followed  by  a  noun 
or  adjective  to  describe  or  define  the  subject.  This  is 
called  a  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective  :  as, — 

mortuus  cecidit,  he  fell  dead.  , 

Quintus  sedet  iudex,  Quintus  sits  as  Judge. 
Caesar  victor  inc€dit,  Ccesar  advances  victorious  (a  victor). 

a.  The  copula  sum,  especially,  is  used  with  a  predicate  noun  or  ad- 
jective (see  §  172.  note).  So,  also,  verbs  signifying  to  become,  to  be 
made,  to  be  named,  to  appear,  whence  these  are  called  Copulative 
{i.e.  coupling)  verbs. 

Note.  —  A  noun  in  agreement  with  some  part  of  the  predicate  is  some- 
times called  a  Predicate  Noun  (see  §  185.  c). 

b.  A  Predicate  noun  or  adjective  after  the  copula  sum  or  a  copu- 
lative verb  is  in  the  same  case  as  the  subject  (see  §  185.  a). 

Roma  est  patria  nostra,  Rome  is  our  country. 

stellae  lucidae  erant,  the  stars  were  bright  (cf.  stellae  lucebant). 

cdnsul  creatus  est,  he  was  elected  consul. 
\     mors  finis  esse  videtur,  death  seems  to  be  the  end. 
•    dicit  n5n  omnes  bonos  esse  beatos,  he  says  that  not  all  good  men  are  happy. 


128 


THE  SENTENCE. 


4.    Object. 


[§  177. 


177.  The  person  or  thing  immediately  affected  by  the 
action  of  a  verb  is  called  the  Direct  Object. 

A  person  or  thing  indirectly  affected  is  called  the  In- 
direct Object. 

Only  transitive  verbs  can  have  a  Direct  Object  ;  but  an 
Indirect  Object  may  be  used  with  both  transitive  and  in- 
transitive verbs  (§§  225,  226).     Thus, — 

pater  vocat  filium  (direct  object),  the  father  calls  his  son. 

mihi  (ind.  obj.)  agrum  (dir.  obj.)  ostendit,  he  showed  me  afield. 

mihi  (ind.  obj.)  placet,  it  is  pleasing  to  me. 

Note. —  The  distinction  between  transitive  and  intransitive  verbs  is  not 
fixed,  but  most  transitive  verbs  may  be  used  intransitively,  and  many  verbs 
usually  intransitive  may  take  a  direct  object  and  so  become  transitive  (§ 
237.  b). 

a.  When  a  transitive  verb  is  changed  from  the  Active  to  the 
Passive  voice,  the  Direct  Object  becomes  the  Subject  and  is  put  in 
the  nominative  case  :  as,  — 

Active  :  pater  filium  vocat,  the  father  calls  [his]  son. 
Passive:  filius  a  patre  vocatur,  the  son  is  called  by  his  father. 
Active :  lunam  et  stellas  videmus,  we  see  the  moon  and  the  stars. 
Passive:  luna  et  stellae  videntur,  the  moon  and  stars  are  seen  (appear). 

b.  With  certain  verbs,  the  Genitive,  Dative,  or  Ablative  is  used 
where  the  English,  from  a  difference  in  meaning,  requires  the  Objec- 
tive.    Thus,  — 

hominem  video,  I  see  the  man  (Accusative). 
.  homini  servi5,  I  serve  the  man  (Dative,  see  §  227). 
hominis  misereor,  I  pity  the  man  (Genitive,  see  §  221.  a). 
homine  amico  utor,  I  treat  the  man  as  a  friend  (Ablative,  see  §  249). 

c.  Many  verbs  transitive  in  Latin  are  translated  in  English  by  an 
intransitive  verb  with  a  preposition  :  as,  — 

petit  aprum,  he  aims  at  the  boar. 

laudem  affectat,  he  strives  after  praise. 

curat  valetiidinem,  he  takes  care  of  his  health.  \ 


§§  178-180.] 


MOD  I  PICA  TION. 


129 


Note.  —  One  or  more  words,  essential  to  the  grammatical  completeness 
of  a  sentence,  but  clear  enough  to  the  mind  of  a  hearer,  are  often  omitted. 
This  omission  is  called  Ellipsis,  and  the  sentence  is  called  an  Elliptical 
Sentence  :  as,  adest,  he  is  here  ;  qai8?(sc.  adest),  who?  miles  (sc.  adest), 
the  soldier. 

5.    Modification. 

178.  A  Subject  or  a  Predicate  may  be  modified  by  a 
single  word,  or  by  a  group  of  words  (a  Phrase  or  a  Clause, 
see  §§  179,  180). 

The  modifying  word  or  group  of  words  may  itself  be 
modified  in  the  same  way. 

a.  A  single  modifying  word  may  be  an  adjective,  an  adverb,  an 
appositive  (§  184),  or  the  oblique  case  of  a  noun.  Thus,  in  the  sen- 
tence vir  fortis  patienter  fert,  a  brave  man  bears  patiently^  the 
adjective  fortis,  brave.,  modifies  the  subject  vir,  man.,  and  the  adverb 
patienter,  patiently.,  modifies  the  predicate  fert,  bears. 

b.  The  modifying  word  is  in  some  cases  said  to  limit  the  word  to 
which  it  belongs.  Thus,  in  the  sentence  pueri  patrem  video,  /  see 
the  boy's  father^  the  genitive  pueri  limits  patrem  (by  excluding  any 
other  father). 

179.  A  Phrase  is  a  group  of  words,  without  subject  or 
predicate  of  its  own,  which  may  be  used  as  an  Adjective 
or  an  Adverb. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence  vir  fuit  summa  nobilitate,  he  was  a  man  of 
the  highest  nobility.,  the  words  summa  nobilitate,  of  the  highest 
nobility,  are  used  for  the  adjective  nobilis,  noble  (or  nobilissimus, 
very  noble),  and  are  called  an  Adjective  Phrase.  In  the  sentence 
magna  celeritate  venit,  he  came  with  great  speed,  the  words  magna 
celeritate,  with  great  speed,  are  used  for  the  adverb  celeriter, 
quickly  (or  celenime,  very  quickly),  and  are  called  an  Adverbial 
Phrase. 

180.  Sentences  are  either  Simple  or  Compound. 

:     A  Simple  Sentence  is  a  sentence  containing  a  single 
statement. 


I  \ 


I30 


THE  SENTENCE., 


[§  i8q. 


A  Compound  Sentence  is  a  sentence  containing  more 
than  one  statement,  and  each  single  statement  in  it  is 
called  a  Clause. 

a.  If  one  statement  is  simply  added  to  another,  the  clauses  are  said 
to  be  Co-ordinate.  They  are  usually  connected  by  a  Co-ordinate 
Conjunction  (§  154.  a)  ;  but  this  is  sometimes  omitted  (§  208.  b). 
Thus,  — 

divide  et  impera,  divide  and  conquer.     But,  — 
venl,  vidl,  vici,  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered. 

b.  \i  one  statement  modifies  another  in  any  way,  the  modifying 
clause  is  said  to  be  Subordinate,  and  the  clause  modified  is  called 
the  Main  Clause. 

This  subordination  is  indicated  by  some  connecting  word,  either  a 
Subordinate  Conjunction  or  a  Relative  (§  1 54.  b)  :  as,  — 

oderint  dum  raetuant,  let  them  hate  so  long  as  they  fear. 
servum  misit  quern  secum  habebat,  he  sent  the  slave  whom    he  had 
with  him. 

A  sentence  containing  one  or  more  subordinate  clauses  is  some- 
times called  Complex. 

Note.  —  A  subordinate  clause  may  itself  be  modified  by  another  sub- 
ordinate clause. 

c.  A  clause  introduced  by  a  Relative  pronoun  or  adverb  is  called 
a  Relative  Clause. 

A  clause  introduced  by  an  adverb  of  time  is  called  a  Temporal 
Clause.     Thus,  — 

dum  tacent  clamant,  while  they  are  silent  they  cry  aloud. 

homines  aegri  morbo  gravi  cum  iactantur  aestu  febrlque,  si  aquam  geli- 
dam  biberint  primo  relevari  videntur,  men  suffering  with  a  severe 
sickness,  when  they  are  tossing  with  the  heat  of  fever,  if  they  drink 
cold  7vater,  seem  at  first  to  be  relieved. 

d.  A  clause  containing  a  Condition,  introduced  by  si,  //,  or  some 
equivalent,  is  called  a  Conditional  Clause.  A  sentence  containing 
a  conditional  clause  is  called  a  Conditional  Sentence. 

Thus,  si  aquam  gelidam  biberint,  primo  relevari  videntur  is  a  Conditional 
Sentence,  and  si  .  .  .  biberint  is  a  Conditional  Clause.  ' 


\ 


§§  181-183.3 


AGREEMENT. 


131 


e,  A  clause  expressing  the  Purpose  of  an  action  is  called  a  Final 
or  Purpose  Clause. 

edo  ut  vivam,  /  eat  to  live  (that  I  may  live). 

misit  legates  qui  dicerent,  he  sent  ambassadors  to  say  (who  should  say). 

A  clause  expressing  the  Result  of  an  action  is  called  a  Consecu- 
tive or  Result  Clause.^ 

tarn  longe  aberam  ut  non  viderem,  /  was  too  far  away  to  see  (so  far  away 
that  I  didn't  see). 

AGREEMENT. 

181.  A  word  is  said  to  agree  with  another  when  it  is 
required  by  usage  to  be  in  the  same  Gender,  Number, 
Case,  or  Person. 

182.  The  following  are  the  general  forms  of  Agree- 
ment, sometimes  called  the  Four  Concords  :  — 

1.  The  agreement  of  the  Noun  in  Apposition  or  as  Predicate  (§§ 
184,  185). 

2.  The  agreement  of  the  Adjective  with  its  Noun  (§  186). 

3.  The  agreement  of  the  Relative  with  its  Antecedents  (§  198). 

4.  The  agreement  of  the  Verb  with  its  Subject  (§  204). 

a.  Synesis,  or  constructio  ad  sensum  (construction  according  to 
sense)  is  a  construction  in  which  a  word  takes  the  gender  or  number, 
not  of  the  word  with  which  it  should  regularly  agree,  but  of  some 
other  word  itnplied  in  that  word. 

I.     NOUNS. 

183.  (Rule  i.)  A  noun  used  to  describe  another,*and 
denoting  the  same  person  or  thing,  agrees  with  it  in  Case  : 
as,  — 

Servius  rex,  Servius  the  king. 

ad  urbem  Athenas,  to  the  city  [of]  Athens. 

Cicero  consul  creatur,  Cicero  is  chosen  consul. 

The  descriptive  noun  may  be  either  an  Appositive  (§  184)  or  a 
Predicate  noun  (§  185). 

1  Observe  that  the  classes  defined  in  a-e  are  not  mutually  exclusive,  but 
^hat  a  single  clause  may  belong  to  several  of  them  at  once.     Thus,  a  relative 
'ause  is  usually  subordinate,  and  maybe  at  the  same,  time  conditional  ;  and 
bordinate  clauses  may  be  co-ordinate  with  each  other. 


132 


THE  SENTENCE. 


[§  184. 


z.    Apposition. 

184.  The  descriptive  noun,  when  in  the  same  part  of 
the  sentence  with  the  noun  described,  is  called  an  Appos- 
iTivE,  and  is  said  to  be  in  Apposition  :  as,  — 

externus  timor,  maximum  concordiae  vinculum,  iungebat  animos  (Liv. 
"•  39) »  f^^''^  of  ih^  foreigner,  the  chief  bond  of  harmony,  united  their 
hearts.     [Here  the  descriptive  noun  belongs  to  the  subject^ 

quattuor  hie  primum  omen  equos  vidi  (vEn.  iii.  537),  /  saw  here  four 
horses,  the  first  omen.     [Here  both  nouns  are  in  the  predicate^ 

litteras  Graecas  senex  didici  (Cat.  M.  26),  /  learned  Greek  when  an  old 
man.  [Here  senex  is  in  apposition  with  the  omitted  subject  of 
didici,  and  expresses  the  time,  condition,  etc.,  of  the  act.] 

a.  Words  expressing  parts  may  be  in  apposition  with  a  word  in- 
cluding the  parts,  or  vice  versa  :  as,  — 

Gnaeus  et  Publius  Sclpiones,  Cneius  and  Publius,  the  Scipios. 

b.  An  appositive  generally  agrees  in  Gender  and  Number  when 
it  can  :  as,  — 

secuntur  naturam,  optimam  ducem  (Lael.  19),  they  follow  nature,  the 
best  guide. 

omnium  doctrinarum  inventrices  Athenas  (De  Or.  i.  i^),  Athens,  dis- 
coverer of  all  learning. 

c.  A  common  noun  in  apposition  with  a  Locative  (§  258.  c)  is  put 
in  the  Ablative,  with  or  without  the  preposition  in :  as,  — 

Antiochiae,  celebri  quondam  urbe  (Arch.  4),  at  Antioch,  once  a  famous 
city. 

Albae  constiterunt  in  urbe  miinita  (Phil.  iv.  6),  they  halted  at  Alba,  a  forti- 
fied town. 

d.  A  possessive  pronoun  or  an  adjective  implying  possession  may 
take  an  appositive  in  the  genitive  case  agreeing  in  gender,  number, 
and  case  with  an  implied  noun  or  pronoun  (§  197.  ^):  as, — 

in  nostro  omnium  fletu  (Mil.  92),  amid  the  tears  of  us  all. 
ex  Anniana  Milonis  dom5  (Att.  iv.  3)  [=  ex  AnnI  Milonis  domo],  out 
of  Annius  Mud's  house. 

2.    Predicate  Agreement. 

The  Predicate  noun  may  agree  (i)  with  the  subject,  being  con  ' 
nected  with  it  by  the  copula  or  a  copulative  verb  (§  1 76.  «),  or  (2) 
with  the  direct  object  of  a  verb. 


§§  185.  186.] 


ADfECTIVES. 


133 


185.  A  descriptive  noun  used  to  form  a  .predicate  is 
called  a  Predicate  Nominative  (or  other  case,  according 
to  the  construction). 

a.  The  case  of  the  predicate  after  the  copula  and  copulative  verlfe 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  subject  (§  i  'jd.  b) :  as,  — 

pacis  semper  auctor  fui  (Lig.  28),  /  have  always  been  an  adviser  of 
peace. 

quae  pertinacia  quibusdam,  eadem  alils  constantia  videri  potest  (Marc. 
31),  what  may  seem  obstinacy  to  some,  may  seem  to  others  consis- 
tency. 

eius  mortis  sedetis  ultores  (Mil.  79),  you  sit  as  avengers  of  his  death. 

ego  patronus  exstiti  (Rose.  Am.    5),  /  have  come  forward  as  an  advocate. 

b.  A  predicate  noun  referring  to  two  or  more  singular  nouns  is  in 
the  plural  :  as,  — 

consules  creantur  Caesar  et  Servilius  (B.C.  iii.  i),  Ccesar  and  Servilius 
are  elected  consuls. 

c.  For  Predicate  Accusative,  see  under  that  case,  §  239.  a. 


II.    ADJECTIVES. 
X.    Rules  of  Agreement. 

186.  (Rule  2.)  Adjectives,  Adjective  Pronouns,  and 
Participles  agree  with  their  nouns  in  Gender,  Number, 
and  Case. 

vir  fortis,  a  brave  man. 

ilia  mulier,  that  woman. 

urbium  magnarum,  of  great  cities. 

cum  ducentis  militibus,  with  200  soldiers. 

imperator  victus  est,  the  general  was  beaten. 

Note.  —  All  rules  for  the  agreement  of  adjectives  apply  also  to  adjec- 
tive pronouns  and  to  participles. 

Adjectives  ^re  either  Attributive  or  Predicate. 

a.  An  Attributive  adjective  simply  qualifies  its  noun  without  the 
ntervention  of  a  verb  or  participle,  expressed  or  implied. 

bonus  imperator,  a  good  commander. 
stellae  lucidae,  bright  stars. 


134 


THE  SENTENCE. 


[§  187. 


b.  All  other  adjectives  are  called  Predicate  adjectives. 

1 .  A  predicate  adjective,  like  a  predicate  noun,  may  be  connected 
with  the  subject  by  esse  or  a  copulative  verb  expressed  or  implied 
(see  §  1 76.  a) :  as,  — 

stellae  lucidae  erant,  i^e  stars  were  bright. 

2.  After  verbs  of  naming,  calling,  making,  etc.,  an  adjective  may 
be  used  as  a  predicate  accusative  like  a  noun  (see  §  239.  a). 

3.  A  predicate  adjective  may  be  used  in  apposition  like  a  noun 
(see  c,  below). 

c.  Predicate  adjectives  in  apposition  follow  the  rules  of  agreement 
of  other  adjectives  (see  §  186,  above):  as, — 

ScTpionem  vivum  vidi,  T  saw  Scipio  in  his  lifetime  (lit.  living). 

d.  With  two  or  more  nouns  the  adjective  is  regularly  plural,  but 
sometimes  agrees  with  the  nearest  (especially  when  attributive). 
Thus,  — 

NIsus  et  Euryalus  primi  (^n.  v.  294),  Nisus  and  Euryahis  first. 
Caesaris  onmi  et  gratia  et  opibus  fruor  (Fam.  i.  9,  21),  I  enjoy  all  Ccesar's 
favor  and  resources. 

187.    One   adjective    may  belong  in    sense   to  twcr'or 
more  nouns  of  different  genders. 
«.  In  such  cases  — 

1 .  An  attributive  adjective  agrees  with  the  nearest  noun  :  as,  — 

multae  operae  ac  laboris,  of  much  trouble  and  toil. 
vita  moresque  mei,  my  life  and  character. 

si  res,  si  vir,  si  tempus  ullum,  dignum  fuit  (Mil.  19),  if  any  thing,  if  any 
man,  if  any  time  was  fit. 

2.  A  predicate  adjective  may  agree  with  the  nearest,  if  the  nouns 
form  one  connected  idea  :  as,  — 

factus  est  strepitus  et  admurmuratid  (Verr.  i.  45),  a  noise  of  assent  was 
made  (noise  and  murmur). 

Note.  —  This  is  only  when  the  Copula  agrees  with  the  nearest  subject 
(§  205.  d). 

b.  But  generally  a  predicate  adjective  will  be  masculine,  if  nouns'' 
of  different  genders  mean  living  beings ;  neuter,  if  things  withouJ)   \ 
life :  as,  —  ' 


§  188.] 


ADfECTIVES  USED  SUBSTANTIVELY. 


135 


uxor  deinde  ac  liberi  amplexi  (Liv.  ii.  40),  then  his  wife  and  children  em- 
braced him. 

labor  (M.)  voluptasque  (f.),  societate  quadam  inter  se  naturali  sunt  iuncta 
(n.)  (id.  V.  4),  labor  and  delight  are  bound  together  by  a  certain  natural 
alliance. 

Note.  —  If  nouns  of  different  genders  include  both  male  beings  and 
things  without  life,  a  predicate  adjective  is  sometimes  masculine,  sometimes 
neuter,  and  sometimes  agrees  in  gender  with  the  nearest  if  that  is  plural : 
as,— 

rex  regiaque  classis  una  profecti  (Liv.  xxi.  50),  the  king  and  the  royal  fleet 

set  out  together. 
natura  inimica  sunt  libera  civitas  et  rex  (id.  xliv.  24),  by  nature  a  fru 

state  and  a  king  are  hostile. 
legatds  sortesque  oraculi  exspectandas  (id.  v.  1 5),  that  the  ambassadors 

and  the  replies  of  the  oracle  should  be  waited  for. 

c.  Two  or  more  abstract  nouns  of  the  same  gender  may  have  a 
predicate  adjective  in  the  neuter  plural  (cf.  §  189.  c)  \  as, — 

stultitia  et  timiditas  et  iniustitia  .  .  .  sunt  fugienda  (Fin.  iii.  y)),  folly, 
rashness,  and  injustice  are  [things]  to  be  shunned. 

d.  A  collective  noun  may  take  an  adjective  of  a  different  gender 
and  number  agreeing  with  the  gender  and  number  of  the  individuals 
implied  {Synesis,  §  182.  ay.  as, — 

pars  certare  parati  (^En.  v.  108),  a  part  ready  to  contend. 
duo  milia  relict!  (Liv.  xxxvii.  39),  two  thousand  were  left. 


2.    Adjectives  used  Substantively. 

188.  Adjectives  are  often  used  as  Nouns  {substantively), 
the  masculine  usually  to  denote  men  or  people  in  general 
of  that  kind,  the  feminine  women,  and  the  neuter  things : 
as,  — 


omnes,  all  men  (everybody), 
maiores,  ancestors. 
Roman!,  Romans.  '" 


omnia,  all  things  (everything), 
minores,  descendants. 
barbari,  barbarians. 


Remark.  —  The  plural  of  adjectives,  pronouns,  and  participles  is  very 
common  in  this  use.-  The  singular  is  rare  except  in  a  few  words  which 
have  become  practically  nouns.     See  below  and  §  189.  a. 


136 


THE  SENTENCE. 


[§  189. 


a.  Certain  adjectives  have  become  practically  nouns,  and  are  often 
modified  by  other  adjectives.     Thus,  — 

tuus  vicinus  proximus,  your  next-door  neighbor. 
proplnqul  ceteri,  his  other  relatives. 

b.  When  any  ambiguity  would  arise  from  the  substantive  use  of 
an  adjective,  a  noun  must  be  added.     Thus,  — 

boni,  the  good ;  omnia,  everything  (all  things);  but  — 
potentia  omnium  rerum,  power  over  everything,     [omnium  alone  would 
mean  all  men."] 

c.  Many  adjectives  are  used  substantively  either  in  the  singular  or 
the  plural,  with  the  added  meaning  of  some  noun  which  is  under- 
stood from  constant  association  :  as, — 

Africus  [ventus],  the  south-west  wind. 
vitulina  [caro],  veal  (calf's  flesh), 
fera  [bestia],  a  wild  beast. 
patria  [terra],  the  fatherland. 

d.  A  noun  is  sometimes  used  as  an  adjective,  and  may  then  be 
modified  by  an  adverb  :  as,  — 

victor  exercitus,  the  victorious  army. 
servum  pecus,  a  servile  troop. 
admodum  puer,  quite  a  boy  (young), 
magis  vir,  more  of  a  man  (more  manly). 

e.  A  few  adverbs  appear  to  be  used  like  adjectives.     Such  are 

1 .  obviam  :  as,  — 

fit  obviam,  he  goes  to  meet  (becomes  in  the  way  of). 

2.  contra,  contradicting  some  previous  adjective,  and  so  in  a  man- 
ner repeating  it :  as,  — 

alia  probabilia,  contra   alia   dlcimus  (Off.  ii.  7),  we  call  some  things 
probable y  others  the  opposite  (not  probable). 

3.  palam  :  as,  — 

palam  res  est,  the  thing  is  all  out. 

189.  Neuter  adjectives  are  used  substantively  in  the 
following  special  senses  : — 

a.  The  neuter  singular  may  denote  either  a  single  object  or  an 
abstract  quality  :  as, — 

rapto  vivere,  to  live  by  plunder. 
in  arido,  on  dry  ground. 


§§  190,  191.] 


POSSESSIVES. 


137 


b.  The  neuter  plural  is  used  to  signify  objects  in  general  having 
the  quality  denoted,  and  hence  may  stand  for  the  abstract  idea :  as, 

honesta,  honorable  deeds  (in  general). 

omnes  fortia  laudant,  all  men  praise  bravery  (brave  things). 

c.  A  neuter  adjective  may  be  used  as  an  appositive  or  predicate 
noun  with  a  noun  of  different  gender  (cf.  §  187.  ^)  :  as, — 

triste  lupus  stabulis,  the  wolf  is  a  grievous  thing  for  the  sheepfold. 
varium  et  mutabile  semper  femina,  woman  is  ever  a  changing  and  fickle 
thing. 

d.  A  neuter  adjective  is  used  in  agreement  with  an  Infinitive  or  a 
Substantive  Clause  :  as, — 

istuc  ipsum  non  esse  (Tusc.  i.  12),  that  very  ''not  to  be.'* 

humanum  est  errare,  to  err  is  human. 

aliud  est  errare  Caesarem  nolle,  aliud  nolle  misereri  (Lig.  16),  it  is  one 

thing  to  be  unwilling  that  Ccesar  should  err^  another  to  be  unwilling 

that  he  should  pity. 

3.  Possessives. 

190.  Possessive  and  other  derivative  adjectives  are 
often  used  in  Latin  where  the  English  has  the  possessive 
case,  or  a  noun  with  a  preposition  (cf.  §§  184.  d,  197.  a)\ 
as, — 

pugna  Cannensis,  the  fight  at  Canna. 

C.  Blossius  Cumanus,  Caius  Blossius  of  Cuma, 

aliena  domus,  another  man's  house. 

a.  Possessive  and  other  derivative  adjectives  are  often  used  sub- 
stantively to  denote  some  special  class  or  relation  (see  §  197.  d):  as, — 

nostri,  our  countrymen  or  men  of  our  party. 
Sullanf,  the  veterans  of  Sulla's  army. 


4.    Adjectives  with  Adverbial  Force. 

191.  An  adjective  agreeing  with  the  subject  or  object 
is  often  used  to  qualify  the  action  of  the  verb,  having  the 
force  of  an  adverb  :  as,  — 

primus  venit,  he  came  first  (was  the  first  to  come). 

laeti  audiere,  they  weri  glad  to  hear. 

erat  Romae  frequens  (Rose.  Am.  id),  he  was  often  at  Rome. 


i3S 


THE  SENTENCE. 


[§§  192-194- 


5.    Comparatives  and  Superlatives. 

192.  When  two  qualities  of  an  object  are  compared, 
both  adjectives  are  in  the  comparative  :  as, 

longior  quam  latior  acies  erat  (Liv.  xxvii.  48),  the  line  was  longer  than  it 
was  broad  (or,  rather  long  than  broad). 

a.  Where  magis  is  used,  both  adjectives  are  in  the  positive  :  as,  — 
clari  magis  quam  honesti  (Jug.  8),  more  renowned  than  honorable. 

193.  (Rule  5.)  Superlatives  (and  more  rarely  com- 
paratives) denoting  order  and  succession —also  medius, 
cetenis,  relicus  —  usually  designate  not  what  object,  but 
what  part  of  it,  is  meant  :  as,  — 

summus  mons,  the  top  of  the  hill. 

seliqui  captlvi,  the  rest  of  the  prisoners. 

in  colle  medio  (B.  G.  i.  24),  halfway  up  the  hill  (on  the  middle  of  the 
hill). 

Note.  —  A  similar  use  is  found  in  such  expressions  as  sera  (multa)  nocte, 
late  at  night.  But  medium  viae,  the  middle  of  the  way  ;  multum  diei,  much 
of  the  day,  also  occur. 

in.    PRONOUNS. 
1.    Personal  Pronouns. 

194.  The  Personal  Pronouns  have,  in  general,  the  same 
constructions  as  nouns. 

a.  The  personal  pronouns  are  not  expressed  as  subjects,  except  for 
distinction  or  emphasis  (compare  §  346.  d)\  as, 

te  voco,  I  call  you  ;  but 

quis  me  vocat  ?  ego  te  voco,  who  is  calling  me  ?  I  (emphatic)  am  calling 
you. 

b.  (Rule  6.)  The  personal  pronouns  have  two  forms  for  the 
genitive  plural,  that  in  -urn  being  used  partitively  (§  216),  and  that 
in  -i  oftenest  objectively  (cf.  §  213.  2)  :  as, 

maior  vestrum,  the  elder  of  you. 

habetis  ducem  memorem  vestri,  oblltum  sui  (Cat  iv.  19),  you  have  a 

leader  who  thinks  (is  mindful)  of  you  and  forgets  (is  forgetful  of) 

himself. 

pais  nostrum,  a  part  {i.e.  some)  oj  us. 


§  I95-] 


DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 


139 


Note. -The  genitives  nostrum,  vestrum  are  occasionally  used  objec- 

T^L^ic''?'-  ^\^T'"^  ^^«*^°^  ^V^"--  -•  ^-^^fond  of  you;  custos 
vestrum  (Cat.  m.  29),  the  guardian  of  you  (your  guardian). 

2.   Demonstrative  Pronouns. 

196.  Demonstrative  pronouns  are  used  either  adjec- 
tively  or  substantively. 

As  adjectives,  they  follow  the  rules  for  the  agreement 
of  adjectives  (§§  186,  187). 

As  substantives,  they  are  equivalent  to  personal  pro- 
nouns. This  use  is  regular  in  the  oblique  cases,  espe- 
cially of  is.     Thus,  — 

1 .  Personal  :  — 

Caesar  et  exercitus  eius,  Casar  and  his  army  (not  suus).     [But,  Caesar 

exercitum  suum  dimisit,  Ccesar  disbanded  his  [own]  army.'\ 
his  Caesar  ita  respondit,  to  them  Ccesar  thus  replied. 

2.  Adjective  :  — 

hoc  proelio  facto,  after  this  battle  was  fought  (this  battle  having  been,  etc.). 
eodem  proelio,  in  the  same  battle. 

[For  special  significations  of  the  demonstratives,  see  §  102.] 

a.  The  demonstratives  are  sometimes  used  as  pronouns  of  reference, 
to  indicate  with  emphasis  a  noun  or  phrase  just  mentioned  :  as,  — 

nullam  virtus  aliam  mercedem  desTderat  praeter  hanc  laudis  (Arch.  28), 
virtue  wants  no  other  reward  except  that  [just  spoken  of]  of  praise.  ' 

b.  But  the  demonstrative  as  a  pronoun  of  reference  is  commonly 
omitted,  or  some  other  construction  is  preferred  :  as, 

memoriae  artem  quam  obllvionis  malo,  /  prefer  (like  more)  the  art  of 
memory  to  (than)  [that]  offorgetfulness. 

c.  When  a  quality  or  act  is  ascribed  with  emphasis  to  a  person  or 
thing  already  named,  is  or  idem  (often  with  the  concessive  quidem) 
is  used  to  indicate  that  person  or  thing  :  as, 

vincula,  et  ea  sempiterna  (Cat.  iv.  7),  imprisonment,  and  that  perpetual. 
legionem  neque  earn  plenissimam  despiciebant  (B.  G.  iii.  2),  they  despised 

the  single  legion,  and  that  not  a  very  full  one. 
tuus  dolor  humanus  is  quidem  sed,  ^\z.,  your  grief  is  human,  to  be  sure, 

but,  etc. 


140 


THE  SENTENCE. 


[§  195- 


d.  An  adjective  pronoun  usually  agrees  with  an  appositive  or  predi- 
cate noun,  if  there  be  one,  rather  than  with  the  word  to  which  it 
refers  (cf.  §  199)  :  as,  — 

hie  labor  hoc  opus  est,  this  is  the  toil,  this  the  task  [namely,  revocare 
gradum,  which  would  regularly  take  a  neuter  pronoun]. 

e.  Idem,  the  same,  is  often  equivalent  to  an  adverb  or  adverbial 
phrase  {also,  too,  yet,  at  the  same  time) :    as,  — 

oratio  splendida  et  grandis  et  eadem  in  primis  faceta  (Brut.  273),  an  ora- 
tion, brilliant,  able,  and  very  witty,  too. 

f.  The  intensive  ipse,  self,  is  used  with  any  of  the  other  pronouns 
or  a  noun  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  :  as,  — 

turpe  mihi  ipsi  videbatur  (Cic),  even  to  me  (to  me  myself)  it  seemed  dis- 
graceful. 
id  ipsum,  that  very  thing. 

Remark.  —  The  emphasis  of  ipse  is  often  expressed  in  English  hy Just, 
very,  mere,  etc.  (see  above  examples). 

g.  Ipse  is  often  used  alone,  substantively,  as  an  emphatic  pronoun 
of  the  third  person  :  as,  — 

mihi  satis,  ipsis  non  satis  (Cic),  enough  for  me,  not  for  themselves. 
beatos  illos  qui  cum  adesse  ipsis  non  licebat  aderant  tamen  (id.),  happy 

they  who,  when  it  was  not  allowed  them  to  attend  in  person,  still  were 

there. 

di  capiti  ipsius  generique  reservent  {JEn.  vii.  484),  may  the  gods  hold  in 
reserve  [such  a  fate]    to  fall  on  his  own  and  his  son-in-law's  head. 

h.  Ipse  is  often  used  alone,  substantively,  to  emphasize  an  omitted 
subject  of  the  first  or  second  person  :  as,  — 

vobiscum  ipsi  recordaminf  (Cic),  remember  in  your  awn  minds  (your- 
selves with  yourselves). 

i.  Ipse,  used  substantively,  sometimes  refers  to  a  principal   per- 
sonage, to  distinguish  him  from  subordinate  persons  :  as,  — 
ipse  dixit  (cf.  airrb^  t<f>a),  he  (the  Master)  said  it. 

k.  Ipse  is  often  (is  rarely)  used  instead  of  a  reflexive.    (Cf .  §  1 96.  /.) 
/.  Ipse  usually  agrees  with  the  subject,  even  when  the  real  emphasis 
is  in  English  on  a  reflexive  in  the  predicate  :  as,  — 

me  ipse  consolor,  I  console  myself.     [Not  me  ipsom.) 


§  196.] 


REFLEXIVE  PRONOUNS. 


141 


3.    Reflexive  Pronouns. 

196.  (Rule  7.).  The  Reflexive  pronoun  (se),!  and  usu- 
ally its  corresponding  possessive  (suus),  are  used  in  some 
part  of  the  predicate  to  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence 
or  clause  :  as,  — 

virtus  se  novit,  virtue  knows  itself. 

pr5misit  se  venturum  [esse],  he  promised  that  he  would  come. 

Brutus  amicum  suum  occidit,  Brutus  killed  his  friend. 

a.  In  a  subordinate  clause  of  a  compound  sentence 
there  is  a  double  use  of  reflexives. 

1.  The  Reflexive  may  always  be  used  to  refer  to  the  subject  of  its 
own  clause  {Direct  Reflexive) :  as,  — 

ex  quo  iudicari  potest  quantum  habeat  in  se  boni  constantia  (B.  G.  i.  40), 

frcmi  which  it  can  be  determined  how  much  good  firmness  possesses 

(has  in  itself). 
[Caesar]  noluit  eum  locum  vacare,  ne  GermanI  e  suis  finibus  transirent 

(B.  G.  i.  28),  CcBsar  did  not  wish  this  place  to  lie  vacant,  for  fear  the 

Germans  would  cross  over  from  their  territories. 

2.  If  the  subordinate  clause  expresses  the  words  or  thought  of  the 
subject  of  the  main  clause,  the  reflexive  is  regularly  used  to  refer  to 
that  subject  {Indirect  Reflexive) :    as,  — 

petierunt  ut  sibi  liceret  (B.  G.  i.  30),  they  begged  that  it  might  be  allowed 

them  (the  petitioners). 
Iccius  nuntium  ad  eum  mittit,  nisi  subsidium  sibi  submittatur,  etc  (B.  G. 

ii.  6),  sends  him  a  message  that  unless  relief  be  furnished  him  (Iccius), 

etc. 
si  obsides  ab  eis  (the  Helvetians)  sibi  (Caesar,  who  is  the  speaker) 

dentur,    se    (Caesar)    cum   eis   pacem   esse  facturum  (B.  G.   i.    14), 

[Caesar  said]  that  if  hostages  were  given  him  by  them,  he  would  make 

peace  with  them. 

Note.  —  Sometimes  is  or  ipse  is  used  as  an  Indirect  Reflexive  either 
from  careless  writing  or  to  avoid  ambiguity  (cf .  /) :  as,  — 

qui  se  ex  his  minus  timidos  existimari  vellent,  non  se  hostem  vereri,  sed 
angustias  itineris  et  magnitiidinem  silvarum  quae  intercederent  inter 

1  This  seems  to  have  been  originally  the  personal  pronoun  of  the  third 
person,  but  it  came  by  use  to  be  purely  reflexive. 


142 


THE  SENTENCE. 


[§  196. 


I 


ipsos  (the  persons  referred  to  by  se  above)  atque  Ariovistum 
timere  dicebant  (B.  G.  i.  39),  those  of  them  who  wished  to  be  thought 
less  timid  said  they  did  not  fear  the  enemy,  but  were  afraid  of  the  nar- 
rows and  the  vast  extent  of  the  forests  which  were  between  themselves 
and  Ariovistus. 

audlstis  nuper  dicere  legates  Tyndaritanos  Mercurium  qui  sacris  anniver- 
sarils  apud  eos  coleretur  Verris  imperio  esse  sublatum  (Verr.  iv.  84), 
you  have  just  heard  the  ambassadors  from  Tyndaris  say  that  the  statue 
of  Mercury  which  was  worshipped  with  annual  rites  among  them  was 
taken  away,  etc.  [Here  Cicero  wavers  between  apud  eos  colebatur, 
a  remark  of  his  own,  and  apud  se  coleretur,  the  words  of  the  legdti. 
COS  does  not  strictly  refer  to  the  ambassadors,  but  to  the  people  — 
the  Tyndaritani.] 

3.  If  the  subordinate  clause  does  not  express  the  words  or  thought 
of  the  main  subject,  the  reflexive  is  not  regularly  used,  though  it  is 
occasionally  found.     Thus, 

sunt  ita  multl  ut  eos  career  capere  non  possit  (Cat.  ii.  22),  they  are  so 
many  that  the  prison  cannot  hold  them.    [Here  se  could  not  be  used.] 

ibi  in  proximis  villls  ita  bipartlto  fuerunt,  ut  Tiberis  inter  eos  et  pons 

interesset   (Cat.  iii.   5),  there  they  stationed  themselves  in  the  nearest 

farmhouses,  in  two  divisions,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  Tiber  and  the 

bridge  were  between  them  (the  divisions).     [Here  inter  se  might  be 

used,  but  it  would  refer  to  a  purpose  of  the  soldiers.] 

b.  The  reflexive  in  a  subordinate  clause  sometimes  refers  to  the 
subject  of  a  suppressed  main  clause  :  as,  — 

Paetus,  omnes  libros  quos  frater  suus  rellquisset  mihi  d5navit  (Att.  ii.  i, 
12),  PcBtusgave  me  all  the  books  which  (as  he  said  in  the  act  of  dona- 
tion) his  brother  had  left  {him). 

c.  The  reflexive  may  refer  to  any  noun  in  its  own  clause  which  is 
so  emphasized  as  to  become  in  a  manner  the  subject  of  discourse  (ci 
the  note) :   as,  — 

Socratem  cives  sui  interfecerunt,  Socrates  was  put  to  death  by  his  own 
fellow-ctttzens. 

qui  poterat  salus  sua  cuiquam  non  V^oh-^r\  {Wx\.%i),  how  can  any  one 
fail  to  approve  his  own  safety  ?  [In  this  and  the  preceding  example 
the  emphasis  is  preserved  in  English  by  the  change  to  the  passive  ] 

hunc  si  secuti  erunt  sui  comites  (Cat.  ii.  10),  this  man,  if  his  com- 
panions follow  him. 

Note.  -  Occasionally  the  clause  to  which  the  reflexive  really  belongs  is 
absorbed  :  as,  — 


§197]     REFLEXIVE  AND  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS. 


143 


studeo  sanare  sibi  ipsos  (Cat.  ii.  17),  /  am  anxious  to  cure  these  men 

for  thetr  own  benefit  {i.e.  ut  sani  sibi  sint). 
su6  sibi  gladio  (Plautus),  with  his  own  sword.     [Here  the  clause  is  too 

indefinite  to  be  supplied.] 

d.  The  reflexive  may  follow  a  verbal  noun  or  adjective  :    as,  — 

sui  laus,  self-praise. 

impotens  sui  (Q.  C),  without  self  control. 

e  The  reflexive  may  refer  to  the  subject  implied  in  an  infinitive  or 
verbal  abstract  used  indefinitely :  as,  — 

bellum  est  sua  vitia  nosse  (Cic),  //  /.  a  fine  thing  to  know  one^s  own 
faults. 

cui  proposita  sit  conservatio  sui  (Fin.  v.  ^7),  one  whose  aim  is  self 
preservation. 

f.  Inter  se.  among  themselves,  is  regularly  used  to  express  recipro- 
cal action :  as,  — 

cohaerentia  inter  se,  things  consistent  with  each  other. 

g.  Suus  is  used  for  one's  own  as  emphatically  opposed  to  that  of 
others,  in  any  part  of  the  sentence  and  with  reference  to  any  word  in 
it :  as,  — 

suis  flammls  delete  Fidenas  (Liv.  iv.  2>^),  destroy  FidencB  with  its  own 

fires  (the  fires  kindled  by  that  city,  figuratively).    [Cf.  Cat.  i.  32.] 
h.  For  reflexives  of  the  first  and  second  persons  the  oblique  cases 
of  the  personal  pronouns  (mei.  tui,  etc.)  are  used  (see  §  98.  2,  a) :  as,  — 
morti  me  obtuli  (Mil.  94),  I  have  exposed  myself  to  death. 
hinc  te  reginae  ad  llmina  perfer  (^n.  i.  389),  do  you  go  (bear  yourselO 
hence  to  the  queen's  threshold. 

i.  Ipse  is  often  (is  rarely)  used  instead  of  an  iftdirect  reflexive,  to 
avoid  ambiguity  ;  and  in  later  writers  is  sometimes  found  instead  of 
the  direct  reflexive  (cf.  a.  2  and  3):  as,  — 

cur  de  sua  virtiite  aut  de  ipsius  diligentia  desperarent  (B.  G.  i.  40),  why 
(he  asked)  shotdd  they  despair  of  their  own  courage  or  his  diligence  ? 

4.    Possessive  Pronouns. 

197.  The  Possessive  pronouns  are  derivative  adjectives, 
which  take  the  gender,  number,  and  case  of  the  noun  to 
which  they  belong,  not  those  of  \.\i^  possessor :  as,  •— 

Caesar  uxorem  suam  repudiavit,  CcBsar  put  away  his  wife. 
haec  sunt  mea  omamenta,  these  are  my  jewels,    [mea  is  neut.  pi.,  though 
the  speaker  is  a  woman.] 


144 


THE  SENTENCE. 


[§  197- 


a.  (Rule  8.)  The  possessive  pronouns  are  used  instead  of  the 
genitive  of  a  personal  pronoun. 

1.  Always  instead  of  the  Possessive  Genitive  :  as, — 

domus  mea,  my  house.     [Never  domus  mei.] 
pater  noster,  our  father.     [Never  pater  nostri.] 

Note  i  .  —  In  different  languages  the  ideas  associated  with  possessives 
are  not  always  the  same,  and  hence  idiomatic  uses  differ.  Thus  my  eulogist 
may,  in  Latin,  be  laudator  nostri  .(Att.  i.  14,  6),  or,  like  the  English,  laudator 
noster  (see  Att.  i.  16,  5),  with  a  different  conception  of  the  relation. 

Note  2.  —  The  possessive  cuius,  -a,  -um,  is  rare  :  as,  cuium  pecus  ? 
whose  flock  ?    The  genitive  cuius  is  generally  used  instead. 

2.  Rarely  instead  of  the  Objective  Genitive.     Thus,  regularly, — 

sui  despiciens,  disdainful  of  himself . 

non  solum  sui  deprecatorem,  sed  etiam  accusatorem  mei,  not  only  a 
mediator  for  himself  but  an  accuser  of  me  (Att.  xi.  8). 

But  occasionally,  — 

ea  quae  faciebat,  tua  se  fiducia  facere  dicebat  (Verr.  v.  176),  what  he  was 
doing,  he  said  he  did  relying  on  you  (with  your  reliance). 

b.  The  possessives  have  often  the  acquired  meaning  of  peculiar 
to,  or  favorable  or  propitious  towards  the  person  or  thing  spoken 
of :  as, — 

[petere]  ut  sua  dementia  ac  mansuetudine  utatur,  they  asked  (they  said) 
that  he  would  show  his  [wonted]  clemency  and  humanity. 

ignorant!  quem  portum  petat  nullus  suus  ventus  est  (Sen.  Ep.  71.  3), /<? 
him  who  knows  not  what  port  he  is  bound  to,  no  wind  is  fair  (his  own). 

c.  The  possessives  are  regularly  omitted  (like  other  pronouns) 
when  they  are  plainly  implied  in  the  context :  as,  — 

amicum  gratulatur,  he  greets  his  friend,  [amicum  suum  would  be  dis- 
tinctive, his  friend  (and  not  another's);  suum  amicum,  emphatic,  his 
own  friend.^ 

d.  Possessives  are  often  used  substantively  (§  190.  d)\  as, — 

nostri,  our  countrymen,  or  men  of  our  party. 

suos  continebat  (B.  G.  i.  15),  he  held  his  men  in  check. 

flamma  extrema  meorum  (^n.  ii.  431),  last  flames  of  my  countrymen. 

e.  (Rule  9.)  A  possessive  representing  a  genitive  may  have  a 
genitive  in  apposition  (§  184.  //):  as, — 

mea  solius  causa,  yi^r  m.y  sake  only. 

nostra  omnium  patria,  the  country  of  us  all. 


§§  197a,  198] 


RELATIVE   PRONOUNS. 


145 


5.    Relative  Pronouns. 

Note.  —  A  Relative  pronoun  is  properly  an  Adjective,  in  agreement 
with  some  word  expressed  or  implied  either  in  its  own  clause,  or  (often)  in 
the  antecedent  (demonstrative)  clause.  The  full  construction  would  require 
the  antecedent  to  be  expressed  in  both  clauses,  with  more  commonly  a  cor- 
responding demonstrative  to  which  the  relative  would  refer :  as,  — 

iter  in  ea  loca  facere  coepit,  quibus  in  locis  esse  Germanos  audiebat 
(B.  G.  iv.  7),  he  began  to  march  into  those  places  in  which  PLACES  he 
heard  the  Germans  were. 

Relatives  serve  two  uses  :  — 

1.  as  Nouns  (or  adjectives)  in  their  own  clause  :  as,  — 

ei  qui  Alesiae  obsidebantur,  those  who  were  besieged  at  Alesia. 

2.  as  Connectives  :  as,  — 

T.  Balventio,  qui  superiore  anno  prTmum  pTlum  duxerat,  Titus  Balventio, 
who  the  year  before  had  been  a  centurion  of  the  first  rank. 

In  this  latter  use  they  are  often  equivalent  merely  to  a  demonstrative  :  as,  — 
quae  cum  ita  sint  (=  cum  ea  ita  sint),  since  these  things  are  so. 

197a.  A  Relative  pronoun  indicates  a  relation  between 
its  own  clause  and  some  substantive.  This  substantive  is 
called  the  Antecedent  of  the  relative. 

Thus,  in  the  sentendp  — 

eum  nihil  delectabat,  quod  fas  esset,  nothing  pleased  him  which  was  right, 
the  relative  quod  connects  its  antecedent  nihil  with  the  predicate  fas 
esset,  indicating  a  relation  between  the  two. 

198.  (Rule  3.)  A  Relative  agrees  with  its  Antecedent 
in  Gender  and  Number  ;  but  its  Case  depends  on  the 
construction  of  the  clause  in  which  it  stands  :  as, — 

puer  qui  venit  abiit,  the  boy  who  came  has  gone  away. 

liber  quem  legis  meus  est,  the  book  you  are  reading  is  mine. 

via  qua  ambulat  ducit  ad  urbem,  the  path  he  walks  in  leads  to  the  city. 

This  rule  applies  to  all  relative  words  so  far  as  they  are  variable 
in  form  :  as,  qualis,  quantus,  quicumque. 

Note.  —  The  relative  may  be  the  subject  or  object  in  its  own  clause,  or 
a  modifier  of  either :  as,  — 

eos  enim  cTves  pugna  ilia  sustulerat  quibus  non  modo  vivis  sed  etiam 
victoribus  incolumis  et  florens  civitas  esse  posset  (Phil.  xiv.  23). 


, 


146 


THE  SENTENCE. 


[§§  199.  -00. 


a.  If  a  relative  has  two  or  more  antecedents,  it  follows  the  rules 
for  the  agreement  of  predicate  adjectives  (§§  186,  187):  as, — 

fllium  et  filiam,  quos  valde  dilexit,  uno  tempore  amisit,  he  lost  a  son  and 

a  daughter  at  the  same  time,  whom,  he  dearly  loved. 
otium  atque  divitiae  quae  prima  mortales  putant  (Sail.  Cat.  36),  idleness 

and  wealth  which  men  count  the  first  (objects  of  desire). 

199.  A  relative  generally  agrees  in  gender  and  number 
with  an  appositive  or  predicate  noun  in  its  own  clause, 
rather  than  with  an  antecedent  of  different  gender  or 
number  (cf.  §  195.  d)\  as, — 

mare  etiam  quem  Neptunum  esse  dTcebas  (N.  D.  iii.  52),  the  sea,  too, 

which  you  said  was  Neptune.     [Not  quod.] 
Thebae  ipsae,  quod  Boeotiae  caput  est  (Liv.  xlii.  44),  even  Thebes,  which 

is  the  chief  city  0/  Bceotia.     [Not  quae.] 

Note.  —  This  rule  is  occasionally  violated  :  as,  — 

flumen  quod  appellatur  Tamesis  (B.  G.  v.  i\),  a  river  which  is  called  the 
Thames. 

a.  A  relative  occasionally  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  case  (by 
attraction) :    as,  — 

SI  aliquid  agas  eorum  quorum  consuesti  (Fam.  v.  14),  if  you  should  do 
something  of  what  you  are  used  to  do.     [For  edrum  quae.] 

b.  A  relative  may  agree  in  gender  and  number  with  an  implied 
antecedent :  as,  — 

quartum  genus  .  .  .  qui  aere  vetere  alieno  vacillant  (Cat.  ii.  21),  a  fourth 
class,  that  are  staggering  under  old  debts. 

Note.  —  So  regularly  when  the  antecedent  is  implied  in  a  possessive 
pronoun  :  as,  — 

nostra  qui  adsumus  salus,  the  safety  of  us  who  are  present.     [Here  qui 
agrees  with  the  nostrum  implied  in  nostra.] 

200.  The  antecedent  noun  sometimes  appears  in  both 
clauses  ;  but  usually  only  in  the  one  that  precedes.  Some- 
times it  is  wholly  omitted.     Thus,  — 

a.  The  antecedent  may  be  repeated  in  the  relative  clause  :  as,  — 

loci  natura  erat  haec  quem  locum  nostri  delegerant  (B.  G.  ii.   18),  the 
nature  of  the  ground  which  our  men  had  chosen  was  this. 


§  201.] 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 


H7 


b.  The  antecedent  may  appear  only  in  the  relative  clause  :  as,  — 
quas  res  in  consulatu  nostro  gessimus  attigit  hie  versibus  (Arch.  28),  he 

has  touched  in  verse  the  things  which  I  did  in  my  consulship 
urbem  quam  statuo  vestra  est  (^n.  i.  573),  the  city  which  I  am  founding 

ts  yours. 

Note.  —  In  this  case  a  demonstrative  (is,  ille,  or  hie)  usually  stands  in 
the  antecedent  clause  :  as,  — 

quae  pars  civitatis  calamitatem  populo  Romano  intulerat,  ea  princeps 
poenas  persolvit  (B.  G.  i.  12),  that  part  of  the  state  which  had  brought 
disaster  on  the  Roman  people  was  the  first  to  pay  the  penalty. 

c.  The   antecedent   may  be   entirely  omitted,    especially  if  it   is 
indefinite :  as,  — 

qui  decimae  legionis  aquilam  ferebat  (B.  G.  iv.  25),  [the  man]  who  bore 
the  eagle  of  the  tenth  legion. 

qui  cognoscerent  misit  (id.  i.  21),  he  sent  [men]  /.  reconnoitre  (who 
should,  etc.). 

d.  A  predicate  adjective  (especially  a  superlative)  agreeing  with 
its  antecedent  in  gender  and  number  may  stand  in  the  relative 
clause  :  as,  — 

vasa  ea  quae  pulcherrima  apud  eum  viderat  (Verr.  iv.  63),  those  most 
beautiful  vessels  which  he  had  seen  at  his  house.  [Nearly  equivalent 
to  the  vessels  of  which  he  had  seen  some  very  beautiful  ones.] 

e.  The  phrase  id  quod  or  quae  res  is  used  (instead  of  quod  alone) 
to  refer  to  a  group  of  words  or  an  idea  : 

[obtrectatum  est]  Gabinio  dicam  anne  Pompeio.?  an  utrique  —  id  quod 

est  verius  .?  (Manil.  57),  an  affront  is  offered—  shall  I  say  to  Gabinius 

or  to  Pompey  ?  or  —  which  is  truer  —  to  both  ? 
multum  sunt  in  venationibus  .  .  .  quae  res  vires  alit  (B.  G.  iv.  i),  they 

spend  much  time  in  hunting,  which  [practice]  increases  their  strength. 

[Cf.  B.  G.  ii.  5.] 

Note.  —  But  quod  alone  often  occurs  :  as, 

Cassius  noster,  quod  mihi  magnae  voluptati  fuit,  hostem  reiecerat  (Fam. 

ii.  10),  our  friend  Cassius —  which  was  a  great  satisfaction  to  me  — 

had  driven  back  the  enemy. 

201.    In  the  use  of  relatives,  the  following  points  are  to 
be  observed  :  — 

a.  The  relative  is  never  omitted  in  Latin,  as  it  often  is  in  English. 
Thus,  — 


148 


THE  SENTENCE. 


[§  201. 


liber  quem  mihi  dedisti,  the  book  you  gave  me. 

is  sum  qui  semper  f  ui,  /  am  the  same  man  I  always  was. 

b.  A  relative  clause  in  Latin  often  takes  the  place  of  some  other 
construction  in  English  ;  particularly  of  a  participle,  an  appositive,  or 
a  noun  of  agency  :  as,  — 

leges  quae  nunc  sunt,  the  existing  laws  (the  laws  which  now  exist). 
Caesar  qui  Galliam  vicit,  Ccesar  the  conqueror  of  Gaul  (who  conquered 
Gaul). 

c.  In  formal  or  emphatic  discourse,  the  relative  clause  usually  comes 
first,  often  containing  the  antecedent  noun  (cf .  §  200.  3) :  as,  — 

quae  mala  cum  multis  patimur,  ea  nobis  leviora  videntur,  the  evils  we 
suffer  [in  common]  with  many^  seem  to  us  lighter. 

d.  The  antecedent,  when  in  apposition  with  the  main  clause,  or 
with  some  word  of  it,  is  put  in  the  relative  clause  :  as,  — 

firmi  amlci,  cuius  generis  est  magna  penuria,  steadfast  friends,  a  class  of 
which  there  is  a  great  lack  (of  which  class). 

e.  A  relative  may  stand  (even  with  another  relative  or  an  inter- 
rogative) at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  or  clause,  where  in  English 
a  demonstrative  must  be  used  :  as,  — 

quae  qui  audiebant,  and  those  who  heard  this  (which  things). 

quae  cum  ita  sint,  and  since  these  things  are  so. 

qu5rum  quod  simile  factum  (Cat.  iv.  13),  what  deed  of  theirs  like  this  ? 

f.  1.  A  relative  adverb  is  regularly  used  in  referring  to  an  ante- 
cedent in  the  Locative  case :  as,  — 

mortuus  Cumis  quo  se  contulerat  (Liv.  ii.  21),  having  died  at  Cumce, 
whither  he  had  retired.  [Here  in  quam  urbem  might  be  used,  but  not 
in  quas.] 

2.  So,  often,  to  express  any  relation  of  place  instead  of  the  formal 
relative  pronoun  (cf.  whence,  whereto,  wherewith) :  as,  — 

locus  quo  aditus  non  erat,  a  place  to  which  (whither)  there  was  no  access. 
regna,  unde  genus  diicis,  the  kingdom  from  which  you  derive  your  race. 

g.  The  relatives  qui,  quails,  quantus,  quot,  etc.,  are  often  rendered 
simply  by  AS ^  in  English  (§  106.  b):  as, — 

idem  quod  semper,  the  same  as  always. 

talis  dux  qualem  Hannibalem  novimus,  such  a  chief  as  we  know  Hannibal 
(to  have  been). 

^  The  English  as  in  this  use  is  strictly  a  relative,  though  invariable  in  form. 


ti  202.] 


INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS. 


149 


h.  The  general  construction  of  relatives  is  found  in  clauses  intro- 
duced by  relative  or  temporal  adverbs:  as,  ubi,  quo,  unde,  cum, 
quare. 

6.    Indefinite  Pronouns. 

202.  The  Indefinite  pronouns  are  used  to  indicate  that 
some  person  or  thing  is  meant,  without  designating  what 
one. 

Note.  —  For  the  meanings  of  the  compounds  of  qui  and  quis,  see  §  105. 

a.  Of  the  particular  indefinites  meaning  sofne  or  any  (quia,  quis- 
piam,  nescio  quis,  aliquis,  quidam),  the  simple  quis  is  least  definite, 
quidam  most  definite  :  as,  — 

dixerit  quis  (quispiam),  some  one  may  say. 

aliqui  philosophi  ita  putant,  some  philosophers  think  so.     [quidam  would 

mean  certain  particular  persons  defined  to  the  speaker's  mind.] 
habitant  hic  quaedam  mulieres  pauperculae,  some  poor  women  live  here 

\i.e.  some  women  he  knows  of  ;    some  women  or  other  would  be 

aliquae  or  nescio  quae]. 

^.  In  a  particular  negative  aliquis  (aliqui)  is  regularly  used, 
where  in  a  universal  negative  quisquam  (subst.)  or  iHlus  (adj.) 
would  be  required  :  as,  — 

iustitia  numquam  nocet  cuiquam  qui  eam  habet  (Cic),  justice  never  does 
harm  to  anybody  who  possesses  it.  [alicui  would  mean  to  somebody 
who  possesses  it."] 

sine  aliquo  metu,  [you  cannot  do  this]  without  some  fear. 

sine  ullo  metu,  [you  may  do  this]  without  any  fear. 

Note.  —  These  pronouns  are  used  in  like  manner  in  conditional  and 
other  sentences  (§  105.  h):  as,  — 

sT  quisquam,  ille  sapiens  fuit  (Lael.  9),  ;/  any  man  was  (ever)  a  sage,  he 

was. 
dum  praesidia  ulla  fuerunt  (Rose.  Am.  126),  while  there  were  any  armed 

forces  (till  they  ceased  to  be). 

c.  Of  the  general  indefinites,  quivis  and  quilibet  {any  you  will), 
utervia  {either  you  will,  of  two),  are  used  chiefly  in  affirmative, 
quisquam  and  ullus  {any  at  all)  in  negative,  interrogative,  or  condi- 
tional clauses  :  as,  — 

cuivis  potest  accidere  quod  cuiquam  potest,  what  can  happen  to  any  [one] 
man  can  happen  to  any  man  [whatever]. 


ISO 


THE  SENTENCE. 


[§  203. 


n5n  cuivis  homini  contingit  adire  Corinthum,  //  is  not  every  man's  luck 
to  go  to  Corinth,     [non  cuiquam  would  mean  not  any  man's.] 

minus  habeo  virium  quam  vestrum  utervis,  /  Aave  less  strength  than 
either  of  you. 

quidlibet  modo  aliquid  (Cic),  anything  you  will,  provided  it  be  something. 

cur  cuiquam  mlsi  prius,  why  did  I  send  to  anybody  before  [you]  ? 

d.  The  distributives  quisque  {every'),  uterque  (each),  and  unus 
quisque  (every  single  one)  are  used  in  general  assertions.  They  are 
equivalent  to  a  plural,  and  sometimes  have  a  plural  verb  (cf.  §  205. 
c.  2) :  as,  — 

bonus  liber  melior  est  quisque  quo  maior,  the  la?ger  a  good  book  is,  the 
better  (each  good  book  is  better  [in  the  same  measure]  as  it  is  larger). 

amba  exercitus  suas  quisque  abeunt  domos,  both  armies  go  away,  every 
man  to  his  home. 

Uterque  utrique  erat  exercitus  in  conspectu,  each  army  was  in  sight  of  the 
other  (each  to  each). 

ponite  ante  orulos  unumquemque  regum,  set  before  your  eyes  each  of  the 
kings. 

e.  Quisque  is  regularly  placed  in  a  dependent  clause,  if  there  is  one  : 

quo  quisque  est  sollertior,  hoc  docet  Iracundius  (Rose.  Com.  31),  the 
keener-witted  a  man  is,  the  ?nore  impatiently  he  teaches  (as  each  is  so, 
etc.). 

Note.  —  Quisque  is  generally  post-positive.   Thus,  suum  cuique,  to  every 
man  his  own. 

f.  Nemo,  no  one,  is  used  :  either 

As  a  substantive :  as,  — 

nemo  fit  repente  turpissimus,  no  one  suddenly  becomes  absolutely  base. 

As  an  adjective  pronoun  :  as,  —  * 

vir  nemo  bonus  (Leg.  ii.  41),  no  good  man. 

Note.  —  Even  when  used  as  a  substantive,  nemo  may  take  a  noun  in 
apposition  :  as,  — 

nemo  scrTptor,  nobody  [who  is]  a  writer. 

7.    Alius  and  Alter. 

203.  The  expressions  alter,  .  .  .  alter,  the  one  .  .  .  the 
other,  alius  .  .  .  alius,  one  .  ,  .  another,  may  be  used  in 
pairs  to  denote  either  division  of  a  group  or  reciprocity  of 
action  :  as,  — 


§  204.] 


VERBS. 


15^ 


arma  ab  aliis  posita  ab  aliis  erepta  sunt   (Marc.  31),  arms  were  laid 

down  by  some  and  were  snatched  from  others. 
alteri  dimicant,  alter!  victorem  timent  (Fam.  vi.  3),  one  party  fights,  the 

other  fears  the  victor. 
hi  fratres  alter  alterum  amant,  these  brothers  love  one  another. 
alius  alium  percontamur,  we  ask  each  other. 

a.  Alius  means  simply  other,  another  (of  an  indefinite  number); 
alter,  the  other  (of  two),  often  the  second  in  a  series ;  ceteri  and 
reliqui,  all  the  rest,  the  others;  alteruter,  one  of  the  two.     Thus,  — 

quid  aliud  agis,  what  else  are  you  doing  (what  other  thing)  ? 

uni  epistulae  respond!,  venio  ad  alteram  (Fam.  ii.  17.  6),  one  letter  I  have 

answered,  I  come  to  the  other. 
alterum  genus  (Cat.  ii.  19),  the  second  class. 
iecissem  ipse  me  potius  in  profundum  ut  ceteros  conservarem  (Sest. 

45),  I  should  have  rather  thrown  myself  into  the  deep  to  save  the  rest. 
Servilius  consul,  reliquique  magistratus  (B.  C.  iii.  21),  Servilius  the  consul 

and  the  rest  of  the  magistrates. 
cum  sit  necesse  alterutrum  vincere  (Fam.  vi.  3),  when  it  must  be  that  one 
^  of  the  two  should  prevail. 

b.  Alius  and  alter  are  often  used  to  express  07ie  as  well  as  another 
(the  other)  of  the  objects  referred  to  :  as,  — 

alter  consulum,  one  of  the  [two]  consuls. 

aliud  est  maledicere,  aliud  acciisare  (Cic),  it  is  one  thing  to  slander, 
another  to  accuse. 

c.  Ali\is  repeated  in  another  case,  or  with  an  adverb  from  the  same 
stem,  expresses  shortly  a  double  statement :  as,  — 

alius  aliud  petit,  one  man  seeks  one  thing,  one  another  (another  seeks 

another  thing), 
alius  alia  via  civitatem  auxerunt  (Liv.  i.  21),  they  enlarged  the  State,  each 

in  his  own  way. 

IV.    VERBS. 


I.    Verb  and  Subject. 

204.    (Rule  4.)    A  Finite  verb  agrees  with  its  Subject 
in  Number  and  Person  :  as,  — 

ego  statuo,  /  resolve. 

silent  leges  inter  arma,  the  laws  are  dumb  in  time  of  war. 


152 


THE  SENTENCE. 


[§  205. 


Note.  —  In  verb-forms  containing  a  participle,  the  participle  agrees  with 
the  subject  in  gender  and  number  (§  186):  as, — 

oratio  est  habita,  the  plea  was  delivered. 
bellum  exortum  est,  a  war  arose. 

a.  A  verb  having  a  relative  as  its  subject  takes  the  person  of  the 
expressed  or  implied  antecedent :  as,  — 

adsum  qui  feci  (iEn.  ix.  427),  here  am  I  who  did  it. 

b.  The  verb  sometimes  agrees  in  number,  a  participle  in  the  verb- 
form  in  number  and  gender,  with  an  appositive  or  predicate  noun : 


as. 


non  omnis  error  stultitia  est  dicenda  (Div.  ii.  90),  not  every  error  should 

be  called  folly. 
Corinthus  lumen  Graeciae  ezstinctum  est,  Corinth,  the  light  of  Greece,  is 

put  out. 

2.    Double  Subject. 

206.  Two  or  more  singular  subjects  take  a  verb  in  the 
plural :  as,  — 

pater  et  avus  mortui  sunt,  his  father  and  grandfather  are  dead. 

a.  When  subjects  are  of  different  persotis,  the  verb  is  in  the  first 
person  rather  than  the  second^  and  in  the  second  rather  than  the 
third :  as,  — 

si  tu  et  TuUia  valetis  ego  et  Cicero  valemus  (Fam.  xiv.  5),  if  you  and 
Tullia  are  well,  Cicero  and  I  are  well.  [Notice  that  the  first  person 
is  2\%o  first  in  order,  not  last,  as  by  courtesy  in  English.] 

Note.  —  In  case  of  different  genders  a  participle  in  a  verb-form  follows 
the  rule  for  predicate  adjectives  ;  see  §  187.  ^,  r. 

b.  If  the  subjects  are  connected  by  disjunctives,  or  if  they  are  con- 
sidered as  a  single  whole,  the  verb  is  usually  singular :  as,  — 

quem  neque  fides  neque  iiisiurandum  neque  ilium  misericordia  repressit 
(Ter.  Ad.  306),  not  faith,  nor  oath,  nay,  nor  mercy,  checked  him. 

Senatus  populusque  Romanus  intellegit  (Fam.  v.  8),  the  Roman  Senate 
and  people  understand.  But,  —  neque  Caesar  neque  ego  habiti 
essemus  (Fam.  xi.  20),  neither  C.  nor  I  should  have  been  considered. 

c.  A  collective  noun  commonly  takes  a  verb  in  the  singular  :  as,  — 

Senatus  haec  intellegit    (Cat.  i.  2),  the  Senate  is  aware  of  this. 
ad  hiberna   exercitus  redit  (Liv.  xxi.  22),  the  army  returns  to  winter 
quarters. 


§206.] 


INCOMPLETE  SENTENCES. 


153 


1.  But  the  plural  is  often  found  with  collective  nouns  when  indi- 
viduals are  thought  of :  as,  — 

pars  praedas  agebant  (Jug.  32),  apart  brought  in  booty. 
cum  tanta  multitudo  lapides  conicerent  (B.  G.  ii.  6),  when  such  a  crowd 
was  throwing  stones. 

Note.  —  The  point  of  view  may  change  in  the  course  of  a  sentence :  as, — 
equitatum  omnem  . . .  quem  habebat  praemittit,  qui  videant  (B.  G.  i.  15), 
he  sent  ahead  all  the  cavalry  he  had,  to  see  (who  should  see). 

2.  Quisque  has  very  often  a  plural  verb,  but  may  be  considered 
as  in  apposition  with  a  plural  subject  implied  (cf.  §  202.  d)  :   as,  — 

sibi  quisque  habeant  quod  suum  est  (Plant.  Cure),  let  every  one  keep 
his  own  (let  them  keep  every  man  his  own). 

d.  When  a  verb  belongs  to  two  or  more  subjects  separately,  it 
may  agree  with  one  and  be  understood  with  the  others :  as,  — 

intercedit  M.  Antonius  et  Cassius  tribuni  plebis  (B.  C.  i.  2),  Antony  and 
Cassius,  tribunes  of  the  people,  interpose. 


3.    Incomplete  Sentences. 

206.  The  subject  of  the  verb  is  sometimes  omitted. 
Thus,  — 

a.  A  personal  pronoun,  as  subject,  is  usually  omitted  unless  em- 
phatic.    Thus,  — 

loquor,  /  speak.     But,  ego  loquor,  it  is  I  that  speak. 

b.  An  indefinite  subject  is  often  omitted. 

This  is  usually  a  plural,  as  in  dicunt,  fenint,  perhibent  {they  say) ; 
but  sometimes  singular,  as  in  inqult  (Tusc.  i.  93),  one  says  (referring 
to  a  class  of  reasoners  just  spoken  of). 

c.  The  verb  is  often  omitted.     Thus,  — 

1 .  Dico,  facio,  ago,  and  other  verbs  in  familiar  phrases :  as,  — 

quorsum  haec  [spectant],  what  does  this  aim  at? 
ex  ungue  leonem  [c6gn5sces],  you  will  know  a  lion  by  his  claw. 
quid  multa,  what  need  of  many  words    (why  should  I  say  much) } 
quid  ?  quod,  what  of  this,  that,  etc.    (what  shall  I  say  of  this,  that,  etc.) } 
[A  form  of  transition.] 

2.  The  copula  sum,  very  commonly  in  the  indicative  and  infinitive, 
rarely  (except  by  late  authors)  in  the  subjunctive :  as,  — 


154 


THE   SENTENCE. 


[§§  207,  208. 


tu  coniunx  (^En.  iv.  w^^  you  [are]  his  wife. 
omnia  praeclara  rara  (Lael.  79),  all  the  best  things  are  rare. 
accipe  quae  peragenda  prius  (^n.  vi.  136),  hear  what  is  first  to  be  accom- 
plished.    [Direct  :  quae  peragenda  prius  ?] 

V.    PARTICLES. 
I.    Adverbs. 

207.  (Rule  10.)  Adverbs  are  used  to  modify  Verbs, 
Adjectives,  and  other  Adverbs. 

a.  A  Demonstrative  or  Relative  adverb  is  often  equivalent  to  the 
corresponding  Pronoun  with  a  preposition  (see  §  201./")  :  as, — 

eo  milites  imponere  (B.  G.  i.  42),  on  them  (thereon,  on  the  horses)  he 

puts  the  soldiers. 
qui  eum  necasset  unde  ipse  natus  esset  (Rose.  Am.  71),  one  who  should 

htive  killed  his  own  father  (him  whence  he  had  his  birth). 

b.  The  adverbs  propius,  near;  proxime,  next  (like  the  adjectives 
propior,  prozimus) ;  pridie,  the  day  before  j  postridie,  the  day  after ^ 
are  sometimes  followed  by  the  accusative  (see  §  261.  a). 

The  adverbs  palam,  openly;  procul,  afar;  aimiil,  at  the  same 
time,  are  sometimes  followed  by  the  ablative  (see  §  261.  b). 

Note.  —  Pridie  and  postridie  are  often  used  with  the  genitive.  Clam, 
without  the  knowledge  of  may  take  the  accusative,  the  ablative,  or  the  geni- 
tive (§  261.  c). 

c.  Many  perfect  participles  used  as  nouns  regularly  retain  the 
adverb  which  modified  them  as  participles  :  as,  — 

praeclare  factum,  a  glorious  deed  (a  thing  gloriously  done). 

d.  Very  rarely  adverbs  are  used  with  nouns  which  contain  a  verbal 
idea  (cf.  §  188.  ^)  :  as,  — 

populus  late  rex  {JE.n.  i.  21),  a  people  ruling  far  and  wide. 
hinc  abitio  (Plaut.),  a  going  away  from  here. 

2.    Conjunctions. 
Note.  —  For  the  classification  of  conjunctions,  see  §§  154,  155. 

208.  Copulative  and  Disjunctive  Conjunctions  connect 
similar  constructions,  and  are  regularly  followed  by  the 
same  case  or  mood  that  precedes  them  :  as,  — 


§  208.] 


CONf UNCTIONS. 


155 


scriptum  senatuT  et  populo  (Cat.  iii.  10),  written  to  the  senate  and  people. 

ut  eas  [partis]  sanares  et  confirmares  (Mil.  68),  that  you  might  cure 
and  strengthen  those  parts. 

neque  mea  prudentia  neque  humanis  consilils  fretus  (Cat.  ii.  29),  rely- 
ing neither  on  my  own  foresight  nor  on  human  wisdom. 

a.  Conjunctions  of  Comparison  (as  ut,  quam,  tanquam,  quasi) 
also  commonly  connect  similar  constructions :  as,  — 

his  igitur  quam  physicis  potius  credendum  existimas  (Div.  ii.  yj),  do  you 
think  these  are  more  to  be  trusted  than  the  natural  philosophers  ? 

ut  non  omne  vinum  sic  non  omnis  natura  vetustate  coacescit  (Cat.  Maj. 
65),  a  J-  every  wine  does  not  sour  with  age^  so  [does]  not  every  nature. 

Cf.  perge  ut  instituisti  (Rep.  ii.  22),  go  on  as  you  have  begun. 

b.  Two  or  more  co-ordinate  words,  phrases,  or  sentences  are  often 
put  together  without  the  use  of  conjunctions  {Asyndeton) :  as,  — 

omnes  di,  homines,  all  gods  and  men. 
liberi,  servi,  freemen  and  slaves. 

1.  With  more  than  two  co-ordinate  words,  etc.,  a  conjunction,  if 
used  at  all,  must  be  used  with  all  (or  all  except  the  first) :  as, 

aut  aere  alien5  aut  magnitudine  tributorum  aut  iniuria  potentiorum 
(B.  G.  vi.  13),  by  debt,  excessive  taxation,  or  oppression  on  the  part  of 
the  powerful. 

summa  fide  et  constantia  et  iiistitia,  with  perfect  good  faith,  [and]  con- 
sistency, and  justice.     [Not  fide  constantia  et  iustitia,  as  in  English.] 

2.  But  words  are  often  so  divided  into  groups  that  the  members 
of  the  groups  omit  the  conjunction  (or  express  it),  while  the  groups 
themselves  express  the  conjunction  (or  omit  it):  as,  — 

propudium  illud  et  portentum,  L.  Antonius  insigne  odium  omnium 
hominum  (Phil.  xiv.  8),  that  wretch  and  monster,  Lucius  Antonius, 
the  abomination  of  all  men. 

3.  The  enclitic  -que  is  sometimes  used  with  the  last  member  of  a 
series,  even  when  there  is  no  grouping  apparent :  as,  — 

v5ce  vultu  motuque  (Brut,  no),  by  voice,  expression,  and  gesture. 
multo  sudore   labore  vigiliisque  (Caecil.    72),  with    much  fatigue,  toil, 
and  waking. 

c.  Two  adjectives  belonging  to  the  same  noun  are  regularly  con- 
nected by  a  conjunction :  as,  — 

multae  et  graves  causae,  many  weighty  reasons. 


156 


THE  SENTENCE. 


[§209. 


d.  Many  words  properly  adverbs  may  be  used  correlatively,  and 
so  become  conjunctions,  partly  or  wholly  losing  their  adverbial  force 
(see  §  107).     Such  are  — 

cum  .  .  .  turn,  while  .  .  .  so  also  {both  .  .  .  and). 

turn  •  ,  .  turn,  now  .  .  .  now. 

modo  .  .  .  modo,  now  .  .  .  now. 

simul  .  .  .  simul,  at  the  same  time  .  .  .  at  the  same  time  (at  once  ...  as 

well  as), 
qua  .  .  .  qua,  now  .  .  .  now. 
nunc  .  .  .  nunc,  now  .  .  .  now. 

Thus,  — 

cum  difficile  est,  tum  ne  aecum  quidem  (Lael.  26),  not  only  is  it  diffi- 
cult, but  even  unfust. 

modo  ait  modo  negat  (Ter.  Eun.  712),  now  he  says  yes,  now  no. 

simul  gratias  agit,  simul  gratulatur  (Q.  C.  vi.  7,  15),  he  thanks  him  and  at 
the  same  time  congratulates  him. 

e.  Two  conjunctions  of  similar  meaning  are  often  used  together, 
for  the  sake  of  emphasis  or  to  bind  a  sentence  more  closely  to  what 
precedes  :  as,  at  vero,  but  in  truths  stilly  however ;  itaque  ergo, 
accordingly  then;  namque,  for;  et-enim,  for^  yoti  see  (§  1 56.  d^. 

f.  For  conjunctions  introducing  subjunctive  clauses,  see  §§  Z^6ff. 

3.    Negative  Particles. 
Note.  —  For  the  list  of  negative  particles,  see  §  149.  e. 

209.  In  the  use  of  the  Negative  Particles,  the  following 
points  are  to  be  observed  :  — 

a.  Two  negatives  are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative,  as  in  English 
(§  150):  as,  nemo  non  videt,  everybody  sees. 
But  a  general  negation  is  not  destroyed  — 

1.  By  a  following  ne  .  .  .  quidem,  7iot  even.,  or  non  modo,  not 
only :  as,  — 

numquam  tu  non  modo  otium,  sed  ne  bellum  quidem  nisi  nefarium  con- 
cuplsti  (Cat.  i.  25),  not  only  have  you  never  desired  repose,  but  you 
have  never  desired  any  war  except  one  which  was  infamous. 

2.  By  succeeding  negatives,  each  introducing  a  separate  sub- 
ordinate member :  as,  — 

eaque  nesciebant  nee  ubi  nee  qualia  essent  (Tusc.  iii.  4),  they  knew  not 
where  or  of  what  kind  these  things  were. 


§  209.] 


NEGATIVE  PARTICLES. 


157 


3.  By  neque  introducing  a  co-ordinate  member  :  as,  — 

nequeo  satis  mirari  neque  conicere  (Ter.  Eun.  547),  /  cannot  wonder 
enough  nor  conjecture. 

b.  The  negative  is  frequently  joined  to  some  other  word.  Hence 
the  forms  of  negation  in  Latin  differ  from  those  in  English  in  many 
expressions.     Thus,  — 

neque  (nee),  and  not,  but  not  (neither  .  .  .  nor)  (not  et  non). 

nee  quisquam,  and  no  one  (nor  any  one)  (not  et  nemo). 

nulli  or  neutri  credo,  /  do  not  believe  either  (I  believe  neither)  (not  non 

credo  uUi). 
nego  haec  esse  vera,  I  say  this  is  not  true  (I  deny  that  these  things  are 

true)  (not  dico  non  esse), 
sine  uUo  perTculo  (less  commonly  cum  null5),  with  no  danger  (without 

any  danger). 
nihil  unquam  audlvl  iucundius,  /  never  heard  anything  more  amusing 

(nothing  more  amusing  have  I  ever  heard). 

c.  A  statement  is  often  made  emphatic  by  denying  its  contrary 
{Litotes^ :  as,  — 

non  haec  sine  numine  divom  eveniunt  {JEn.  ii.  777),  these  things  do  not 

occur  without  the  will  of  the  gods. 
haec  non  nimis  exquiro  (Att.  vii.  18,  3),  not  very  much,  i.e.  very  little. 

Note.  —  Compare  nonnuUus,  nonnemo,  etc.  (§  150.  a). 

d.  The  particle  immo,  nay^  is  used  to  contradict  some  part  of  a 
preceding  statement  or  question,  or  its  form  ;  in  the  latter  case,  the 
same  statement  is  often  repeated  in  a. stronger  form,  so  that  immo 
becomes  nearly  equivalent  to  yes  {nay  but^  nay  rather^ :  as,  — 

causa  igitur  non  bona  est  t  immo  optima  (Att.  ix.  7),  is  the  cause  then  not 
a  good  one  ?  on  the  contrary,  the  best. 

e.  Minus,  less    (especially  with  si,   if^  quo,  in  order  that),  and 
minime,  least,  often  have  a  negative  force.     Thus,  — 

si  minus  possunt,  if  they  cannot.    [For  quo  minus,  see  §§  319.  c,  331.  e.'\ 
audacissimus  ego  ex  omnibus  ?  minime  (Rose.  Am.  2),  am  I  the  boldest 
of  them  all?  by  no  means  (not  at  all). 

[For  do  not  in  Prohibitions,  see  §  269.  a.] 


158 


THE  SENTENCE. 


[§  210. 


§211.] 


DOUBLE   QUESTIONS. 


VI.     QUESTIONS. 

210.    Questions  are  either  Direct  or  Indirect. 

1.  A  Direct  Question  gives  the  exact  words  of  the  speaker  :  as,— 
quid  est?  what  is  it? 

2.  An  Indirect  Question  gives  the  substance  of  the  question, 
adapted  to  the  form  of  the  sentence  in  which  it  is  quoted.  It  de- 
pends on  a  verb  or  other  expression  of  asking,  doubting,  knowing, 
or  the  like  :  as,  — 

rogavit  quid  esset,  he  asked  what  it  was.     [Direct  :  quid  est,  what  is  it?] 
nescio  ubi  sim,  /  k/ww  not  where  I  am.     [Direct :  ubi  sum,  where  am  I  /"] 

Questions  in  Latin  are  introduced  by  special  interroga- 
tive words,  and  are  not  distinguished  by  the  order  of 
words,  as  in  English. 

Note.  — For  the  list  of  Interrogative  Particles,  see  §  149.  d. 

a.  (Rule  ii.)  A  question  0/  simple  fact,  requiring  the  answer 
YES  or  NO,  is  formed  by  adding  the  enclitic  -ne  to  the  emphatic  word  : 
as, — 

tune  id  veritus  es  (Cic),  did  \ov  fear  that? 

hicine  vir  usquam  nisi  in  patria  morietur  (Mil.  104),  shall  this  man 
die  anywhere  but  in  his  native  land  ? 

b.  The  interrogative  particle  -ne  is  sometimes  omitted  :  as,  — 

patere  tua  consilia  non  sentis  (Cat.  i.  i),  do  you  not  see  that  your  schemes 
are  manifest  (you  do  not  see,  eh)  ? 

Note  — In  such  cases  no  sign  of  interrogation  appears  except  in  the 
punctuation,  and  it  is  often  doubtful  whether  the  sentence  is  a  question  or 
an  ironical  statement. 

c.  (Rule  12.)  When  the  enclitic  -ne  is  added  to  a  negative  word, 
as  in  nonne,— an  affirmative  answer  is  expected.  The  particle  num 
suggests  a  negative  answer.     Thus,  — 

noime  animadvertis  (N.  D.  ui.  89),  do  you  not  observe? 

num  dubium  est  (Rose.  Am.  107),  there  is  no  doubt,  is  there? 

d.  The  particle  -ne  often  when  added  to  the  verb,  less  commonly 
when  added  to  some  other  word,  has  the  force  of  nonne :  as,  — 

meministlne  me  in  senatu  dicere   (Cat.  i.  7),  donU you  remember  my  say- 

mg  in  the  Senate  ? 
rectene  interpretor  sententiam   tuam   (Tusc.iii.   37),  do  I  not  rightly 

interpret  your  meaning  ? 


159 


Note.  — This  was  evidently  the  original  meaning  of-ne;  but  in  most 
-  cases  the  negative  force  was  lost,  and  -ne  was  used  merely  to  express  a  ques- 
tion.    So  the  EngUsh  interrogative  no  ?  shades  off  into  eh  ? 

e.  A  question  concerning  some  special  circumstance  is  formed  by 
prefixing  to  the  sentence  an  interrogative  pronoun  or  adverb  (§  106) 
as  in  English  :  as,  — 

quid  est  quod  iam  amplius  exspectes  (Cat.  i.  6),   what  is  there  for  you  to 
look  for  any  more  ? 

quo  igitur  haec  spectant  (Fam.  vi.  6),  whither,  then,  is  all  this  tending? 
Icare,  ubi  es  (Ov.  M.  viii.  232),  Icarus,  where  are  you? 

Remark.  —  A  question  of  this  form  becomes  an  exclamation  by  chang- 
ing the  inflection  of  the  voice  :  as,  quails  vir  erat!  what  a  man  he  was! 
quot  calamitates  passi  sumus  !  how  many  misfortunes  have  we  suffered! 

f.  The  particles  nam  (enclitic)  and  tandem  may  be  added  to  inter- 
rogative pronouns  and  adverbs  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  :  as,  _ 
quisnam  est,  pray  who  is  it  ?     [quis  tandem  est  ?  would  be  stronger.] 
ubinam  gentium  sumus  (Cat.  i.  9),  where  in  the  world  are  we? 
in  qua  tandem  urbe  hoc  disputant  (Mil.  7),  in  what  city,  pray,  do  they 
maintain  this? 

In  indirect  questions  num  loses  its  peculiar  force  <§  210.  c). 

Double  Questions. 

211.    A  Double  or  Alternative  Question  is  an  inquiry 
as  to  which  of  two  or  more  supposed  cases  is  true. 

In  Double  or  Alternative  Questions,  utrmn  or  -ne, 
whether,  stands  in  the  first  member ;  an,  anne,  or,  annon, 
necne,  or  not,  in  the  second  ;  and  usually  an  in  the  third, 
if  there  be  one  :  as,  — 

utrum  nescis,  an  pro  nihilo  id  putas  (Fam.  x.  26),  is  it  that  you  don't  know, 

or  do  you  think  nothing  of  it  ? 

quaero  servosne  an  llberos  (Rose.  Am.  74),  /  ask  whether  slaves  or  free. 

Remark.  —Annon is  more  common  in  direct  questions,  necne  in  indirect. 

a.  The  interrogative  particle  is  often  omitted  in  the  first  member  ; 

in  which  case  an  or  -ne  (anne,  necne)  may  stand  in  the  second :  as,— 

Gabinio  dicam  anne  Pompeio  an  utrfque  (Man.  57),  shall  I  say  to  Gabi- 

nius,  or  to  Pompey,  or  to  both  ? 
sunt  haec  tua  verba  necne  (Tusc.  iu.  41),  are  these  your  words  or  not? 


i6o 


THE  SENTENCE. 


[§2I2. 


§212.] 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS. 


l6l 


b.  Sometimes  the  first  member  is  omitted  or  implied,  and  an  (anne) 
alone  asks  the  question,  —  usually  with  indignation  or  surprise  :  as,  — 

an  tu  miseros  putas  illos  (Tusc.  1.  13),  '^hatl  do  you  think  those  men 
•wretched  1 

c.  Sometimes  the  second  member  is  omitted  or  implied,  and  utrum 
may  ask  a  question  to  which  there  is  no  alternative  :  as,  — 

utrum  in  clarissimis  est  civibus  is,  quern  .  .  .  (Flacc.  45).  ^^  ^'  ^^^'^^  ^^' 
noblest  citizens,  whom,  etc.  ? 

d.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  various  forms  of  alternative 
questions  :  — 

utrum  ...  an  ...  an  -ne       ...  an 

utrum  ...  annon  . .  . -ne,  necne 

...  an  (anne)        -ne   ...  necne 

Question  and  Answer. 

212.  There  is  no  one  Latin  word  in  common  use  mean- 
ing simply  yes  or  no.  In  answering  a  question  affirma- 
tively, the  verb  or  some  other  emphatic  word  is  generally 
repeated;  in  answering  negatively^  the  verb,  etc.,  with 
non  or  a  similar  negative  :  as,  — 

valetne,  is  he  well  ?  valet,  yes  (he  is  well). 

eratne  tecum,  was  he  with  you  ?  non  erat,  no  (he  was  not). 

numquidnam  novi,  there  is  nothing  new,  is  there  ?  nihil  sane,  oh  !  nothing 

a.  An  intensive  or  negative  particle,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause  is  some- 
times used  to  answer  a  direct  question  :  thus,  — 

1 .  For  YES  :  — 

etiam,  even  so,  yes,  etc.  ita  vero,  certainly  (so  in  truth),  etc 

vero,  in  truth,  true,  no  doubt, yes.      sane  quidem,  yes,  no  doubt,  etc. 
ita,  so,  true,  etc.  ita  est,  //  is  so,  true,  etc. 

sane,  surely  (soundly),  «^  doubt,  doubtless,  etc. 
certe,  certainly,  most  assuredly,  unquestionably,  etc. 

2.  For  NO  :  — 

non,  not  [so].  "^116  modo,  by  no  means. 

minime,  not  at  all  (in  the  smallest  degree,  cf.  §  209.  e). 

minime  ver5,  no,  not  by  any  means  ;  oh  !  no,  etc. 

n5n  quidem,  why,  no  ;  certainly  not,  etc. 

non  hercle  vero,  why,  gracious,  no  (certainly  not,  by  Hercules) ! 


Examples  are  :  — 

quidnam  }  an  laudationes  }  ita,  why,  what  ?  is  it  eulogies  ?  just  so. 

aut  etiam  aut  non  respondere  (Acad.  ii.  104),  to  answer  (categorically) 

yes  or  no. 
estne  ut  fertur  forma  ?  sane  (Ter.  Eun.  360),  is  [she]  as  handsome  as  they 

say  she  is  (is  her  beauty  as  it  is  said)  ?  oh  I  yes. 
fugisne  hinc?  ego  vero  ac  lubens  (Ter.  And.  337),  will  you  clear  out  from 

here  ?  indeed  I  will,  and  be  glad  to. 
miser  ergo   Archelaus?  certe  si  iniustus  (Tusc.  v.  35),  was  Archelaus 

wretched  then?  certainly,  if  he  was  unjust. 
haec  contemnitis  t  minime  (De  Or.  ii.  295),  do  you  despise  these  things  ? 

not  at  all. 
volucribusne  et   feris?   minime   veto    (Tusc.    i.   104),   to  the  birds  and 

beasts  ?  why,  of  course  not. 
ex  tui  animi  sententia  tu  uxorem  habes  ?  non  hercle,  ex  mei  animi  sen- 

tentia  (De  Or.  ii.  260),  Lord!  no,  etc. 

b.  In  answering  a  double  question,  one  member  of  the  alternative, 
or  some  part  of  it,  must  be  repeated  :  as,  — 

tune  an  f  rater  erat,  was  it  you  or  your  brother?     ego  [eram],  //  was  I. 

Remark.  —  From  double  questions  must  be  distinguished  those  which 
are  in  themselves  single,  but  of  which  some  detail  only  is  alternative.  These 
have  the  common  disjunctive  particles   aut  or   vel  (-ve) :  as, — 

quaero  num  iniuste  aut  improbe  fecerit  (Off.  iii.  54),  I  ask  whether  he 
acted  unjustly  or  even  dishonestly. 

Here  there  is  no  double  question.  The  only  inquiry  is  whether  the  man 
did  either  of  the  two  things  supposed,  not  7vhich  of  the  two  he  did. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 

I.  GENITIVE. 

Note.  —  The  Genitive  is  regularly  used  to  express  the  relation  of  one 
noun  to  another.  Hence  it  is  sometimes  called  the  adjective  case,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  Dative  and  the  Ablative,  which  may  be  called  adverbial 
cases.     Its  uses  may  be  classified  as  follows  :  — 

■ 

1.  Of  Possession  (§  214). 

2.  Of  Source  developed  into  Material  (§  214.  e). 

3.  Of  Quality  (§215). 

4.  Of  the   Whole,  after  words   designating  a    Part 
(Partitive,  §  216). 

5.  With  Nouns  of  Action  and  Feeling  (§  217). 


I.  Genitive  WITH 

Nouns; 


\ 


l62 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§§213,214.     ^ 


Verbs  : 


II.  Genitive  WITH  j  i.  Relative  adjective  (or  Verbal)  (§  218.  a,  b). 

Adjectives:  |  2.  Of  Specification  (later  use)  (§  218.  c). 
III.  Genitive  v^ith  (  i.  Of  Memory,  Feeling,  etc.  (§§  219,  221-23). 

(  2.  Of  Accusing,  etc.  (Charge  or  Penalty)  (§  220). 


I.  Genitive  with  Nouns. 

213.  (Rule  14.)  A  noun  used  to  limit  or  define  another, 
and  7tot  meaning  the  same  person  or  thing,  is  put  in  the 
Genitive. 

This  relation  is  most  frequently  expressed  in  English  by  the  pre- 
position OF :  as,  — 

libri  Ciceronis,  the  books  of  Cicero,  Cicero's  books. 

talentum  auri,  a  talent  of  gold. 

vir  summae  virtutis,  a  man  of  the  greatest  courage. 

pars  militum,  a  part  of  the  soldiers. 

cultus  deorum,  worship  of  the  gods. 

vacatio  laboris,  a  respite  from  toil. 

victor  omnium  gentium,  conqueror  of  all  nations. 

In  most  constructions  the  genitive  is  either  Subjective 
or  Objective. 

1.  The  Subjective  genitive  denotes  that  to  which  the  noun  liipited 
belongs,  or  from  which  it  is  derived  (§  214). 

2.  The  Objective  genitive  denotes  that  towards  which  an  action  or 
feeling  is  directed  (§'217  ff.). 

This  distinction  is  illustrated  by  the  following  example.  The 
phrase  amor  patais,  love  of  a  father,  may  mean  \o\tfelt  by  a  father, 
a  fathers  love  (subjective  genitive),  or  love  towards  a  father  (ob- 
jective genitive). 

214.  (Rule  15.)  The  Subjective  Genitive  is  used  with 
a  noun  to  denote  (i)  the  Author  or  Owner,  (2)  the  Source 
or  the  Material,  (3)  the  Quality. 

I.  Possessive  Genitive. 

a.  I.  The  Possessive  Genitive  denotes  the  author  or 
owner  :  as,  — 

libri  Ciceronis,  the  books  of  (written  by)  Cicero. 
Alexandri  ecus,  Alexander's  horse. 


^ 


§  2I4-] 


POSSESSIVE   GENITIVE. 


163 


2.  For  the  genitive  of  possession  a  possessive  or  derivative  adjec- 
tive is  often    used,— regularly   for  the  possessive   genitive   of   the 
personal  pronouns  (§§  190,  197.  a):  as,— 
liber  meus,  my  book.     [Not  liber  mei.] 
aliena  pericula,  other  men's  dangers.     [But  also  aliorum^.] 
Sullana  tempora,  the  times  of  Sulla.     [Oftener  SuUae.j 

d.  The  noun  limited  is  understood  in  a  few  expressions:  as, 

ad  Castoris  [aedes],  to  the  [temple]  of  Castor  (cf.  English,  St.  Peter's). 
Hectoris  Andromache  (^n.  iii.  319),  Hector's  [wife]  Andromache. 
Flaccus  Claudl,  Flaccus  [slave]  of  Claudius. 

c.  The  possessive  genitive  is  often  in  the  predicate,  connected  with 
its  -noun  by  a  verb  :  as,  — 

haec  domus  est  patria  mei,  this  house  is  my  father's. 
tutelae  nostrae  [eos]  duximus  (Liv.),  we  held  them  [to  be]  in  our  protec- 
tion. 

compendi  facere,  to  save  (make  of  saving), 
lucri  facere,  to  get  the  benefit  of  (make  of  profit). 

iam  me  Pompei  t5tum  esse  scls  (Fam.  ii.  i^^,  you  kno7u  I  am  now  all  for 
Pompey  (all  Pompey's). 

Remark.  —  These  genitives  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  examples  in 
§  213  that  a  predicate  noun  bears  to  an  appositive  (§§  184,  185). 

d.  An  infinitive  or  a  clause,  when  used  as  a  noun,  is  often  limited 
by  a  genitive  in  the  predicate:  as, — 

neque  sui  iudici  [erat]  decernere  (B.  C.  i.  35),  nor  was  it  for  his  judg- 
ment to  decide  (nor  did  it  belong  to  his  judgment). 

cuiusvis  hominis  est  errare  (Cic),  //  is  any  man's  [liability]  to  err. 

timidi  est  optare  necem  (Ov.  M.  iv.  115),  //  is  for  the  coward  to  wish  for 
death. 

sapientis  (not  sapiens)  est  pauca  loqul,  //  is  wise  (the  part  of  a  wise  man) 
to  say  little. 

Remark.  —  This  construction  is  regular  with  adjectives  of  the  third 
declension  instead  of  the  neuter  nominative  (see  the  last  example). 

Note.  —  A  derivative  or  possessive  adjective  may  be  used  for  the  geni- 
tive in  this  construction,  and  must  be  used  for  the  genitive  of  a  personal 
pronoun:  as, — 

mentiri  non  est  meum  (not  mei),  //  is  not  for  me  to  lie. 
humanum  (for  hominis)   est  errare,  //  is  man's  nature  to  err  (to  err  is 
human). 


164 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


2.  Genitive  of  Material. 


[§§215,  216. 


e.    The  genitive  may  denote  the  Substance  or  Material 
of  which  a  thing  consists  (compare  §§  216,  244) :  as, — 

talentum  auri,  a  talent  of  gold. 
flumina  lactis,  rivers  of  milk. 

f.  A  limiting  genitive  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  a  noun  in  appo- 
sition (§  183)  :  as, — 

nomen  insaniae  {for  nomen  insania),  the  word  madness. 
oppidum  Antiochiae  {for  oppidum  Antiochia,  the  regular  form),  the  city 
of  Antioch.     [A  very  loose  use  of  this  genitive,  cf.  e.'\ 

3.  Genitive  of  Quality. 

215.  The  genitive  is  used  to  denote  Quality,  but  only 
when  the  quality  is  modified  by  an  adjective  :  as,  — 

vir  summae  virtutis,  a  man  of  the  highest  courage.     [But  not  vir  virtutis.] 
magnae  est  deliberationis,  /'/  is  an  affair  of  great  deliberation. 
ille  autem  sui  iudicT  (Nep.  Att.  9),  but  he  [a  man]  of  independent  (his 
own)  judgment. 

a.  The  genitive  of  quality  is  found  in  the  adjective  phrases  eius 
modi,  cuius  modi  (equivalent  to  talis,  such;  qualis,  of  what  sorf). 

b.  The  genitive  of  quality,  with  numerals,  is  used  to  define  meas- 
ures of  length.,  depth.,  etc.  {Genitive  of  measure):  as, — 

fossa  trium  pedum,  a  trench  of  three  feet  [in  depth], 
murus  sedecim  pedum,  a  wall  of  sixteen  feet  [high]. 

c.  For  Genitives  of  Quality  used  to  express  indefinite  value,  see 
§  252.  a. 

4.  Partitive  Genitive. 

216.  (Rule  16.)    Words  denoting  a  Part  are  followed 
by  the  genitive  of  the  Whole  to  which  the  part  belongs. 

a.  Partitive  words,  followed  by  the  genitive,  are — 

.1.  Nouns  or  pronouns  :  as, — 

pars  mllitum,  part  of  the  soldiers. 

quis  nostrum,  which  of  us  (cf.  e,  below)? 

joihil  erat  reliqui,  there  was  nothing  left. 


§  216.] 


PARTITIVE   GENITIVE. 


165 


2.  Numerals,  Comparatives,  Superlatives,  and  Pronominal  words 
like  alius,  etc.:  as, — 

alter  consulum,  one  of  the  [two]  consuls. 

unus  tribunorum,  one  of  the  tribunes  (cf.  r,  below). 

plurimum  tdtlus  Galliae  equitatu  valet  (B.  G.  v,  3),  is  strongest  in  cavalry 

of  all  Gaul. 
maior  fratrum,  the  elder  of  the  brothers. 

3.  Neuter  adjectives  and  pronouns,  used  as  nouns  :  as,  — 

tantnm  spati,  so  much  [of]  space. 

aliquid  nummorum,  a  few  pence  (something  of  coins). 

id  loci  {or  locorum),  that  spot  of  ground.     Also  at  that  time. 

id  temporis,  at  that  time  (§  240.  b). 

plana  urbis,  the  level  parts  of  the  town. 

quid  novi,  what  news  (what  of  new)  } 

Remark.  —  The  genitive  of  adjectives  of  the  third  declension  is  rarely 
used  partitively.     Thus,  — 

nihil  novi  (gen.),  nothing  new  ;  but 

nihil  memorabile    (nom.),   nothing  worth  mention.      [Not  nihil  memo- 
rabilis.] 

4.  Adverbs,  especially  of  Quantity  and  Place,:  as, — 

satis  pecuniae,  money  enough  (enough  of  money). 

parum  oti,  not  much  ease  (too  little  of  ease). 

tum  temporis,  at  that  point  of  time  (then  of  time). 

ubinam  gentium  sumus,  where  in  the  world  are  we  (where  of  nations)  "i 

b.^  The  poets  and  later  writers  often  use  the  partitive  genitive  after 
adjectives,  instead  of  a  noun  in  its  proper  case  :  as,  — 

sequimur  te  sancte  deorum  (^n.  iv.  576),  we  follow  thee,  O  holy   deity. 
[For  sancte  deus.] 

c.  Cardinal  numerals  regularly  take  the  Ablative  with  e  (ex)  or 
de  instead  of  the  Partitive  Genitive.  So  also  quidam  commonly, 
and  other  words  occasionally  :  as,  — 

unus  ex  tribunls,  one  of  the  tribunes.     [But  also,  unus  tribunorum.] 
minumus  ex  illls  (Jug.  11),  the  youngest  of  them. 
quidam  ex  militibus,  certain  of  the  soldiers. 

d.  Uterque,  both  (properly  each).,  and  quisque,  each.,  with  Nouns 
are  used  as  adjectives  in  agreement,  but  with  Pronouns  always  take  a 
partitive  genitive  :  as,  — 

uterque  consul,  both  the  consuls  ;  but,  uterque  nostrum,  both  of  us. 
unus  quisque  vostrum,  each  one  of  you. 


1 66 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§§  217,  218. 


e.  Numbers  and  words  of  quantity  including  the  whole  of  any 
thing,  take  a  case  in  agreement,  and  not  the  partitive  genitive.  So 
also  words  denoting  a  part  if  only  that  part  is  thought  of:  as, — 

nos  omnes,  all  of  us  (we  all).     [Not  omnes  nostrum]  but  nostrum  onmium. 

quot  sunt  hostes,  how  many  of  the  enemy  are  there? 

multi  milites,  many  of  the  soldiers.  \ 

5.     Objective  Genitive. 

The  Objective  Genitive  is  used  with  Nouns,  Adjectives, 
and  Verbs. 

217.  (Rule  17.)  Nouns  of  actiotiy  agency ^  dJid  feeling 
govern  the  genitive  of  the  object :  as, — 

deslderium  otl,  longing  for  rest. 
gratia  benefici,  gratitude  for  kindness. 
fuga  malorum,  refuge  from  disaster. 
precatio  deorum,  prayer  to  the  gods. 

Note.  —  This  usage  is  an  extension  of  the  idea  of  belonging  to  (Pos- 
sessive Genitive). 

a.  The  objective  genitive  is  sometimes  replaced  by  a  possessive  or 
other  derivative  adjective  (see  §  [97.  a.  2) :  as, — 

mea  invidia,  my  unpopularity  (the  dislike  of  which  I  am  the  object), 
metus  hostllis  (Jug.  ^\),  fear  of  the  enemy  (hostile  fear). 

b.  Rarely  the  objective  genitive  is  used  with  a  noun  already  limited 
by  another  genitive  :  as,  — 

animi  multarum  rerum  percursio  (Tusc.  iv.  31),  the  mind^s  traversing  of 
many  things. 

c.  A  noun  with  a  preposition  is  often  used  instead  of  the  objective 
genitive  :  as,  — 

odium  in  Caesarem,  hate  of  Casar.     [Cf.  odium  Caesaris,  note  above.] 

merita  erga  me  (Cic),  services  to  me. 

excessus  e  vita  (id.),  departure  from  life.     [Also,  excessus  vitae,  Cic] 

II.     Genitive  with   Adjectives. 

218.  Adjectives  requiring  an  object  of  reference  govern 
the  objective  genitive. 

These  are  called  Relative  Adjectives  {adiectiva  reldtiva)  or  Tran- 
sitive Adjectives,  and  include  the  following  :  — 


§  218.] 


OBfECTIVE   GENITIVE. 


167 


a.  (Rule  18.)    Adjectives  denoting  desire^  knowledge,  memory., 
fulness y  powers.,  hearing.,  guilt,  and  their  opposites  :  as,  — 

avidus  laudis,  greedy  of  praise. 
fastidiosus  litterarum,  disdaining  letters. 

^ ^iuris  peritus,  skilled  in  law.     [So,  also,  the  ablative,  lure,  cf.  §  253.] 

rei  militaris  imperitus,  unskilled  in  military  science. 

rationis  et  orationis  expertes,  devoid  of  sense  and  speech. 

vostri  memor,  mindful  of  you. 

plenus  fid€i,full  of  good  faith. 

impotens  irae,  ungovernable  in  anger. 

particeps  coniurationis,  sharing  in  the  conspiracy. 

ins5ns  culpae,  innocent  of  guilt. 

b.  (Rule  18.)  Verbals  in  4bc  (§  164.  /);  also  participles  in -na 
when  used  as  adjectives,  {i.e.  to  denote  a  disposition  and  not  a 
particular  act)',  as,  — 

tenacem  propositi  virum  (Hor.  Od.  iii,  3),  a  man  steadfast  to  his  purpose. 

circus  capax  populi  (Ov.),  a  circus  big  enough  to  hold  the  people. 

si  quern  tui  amantiorem  cognovisti  (Q.   Fr.  i.  i.  15),  if  you  have  become 

acquainted  with  any  one  more  fond  of  you. 
multitudo  Insolens  belli  (B.  C.  ii.  36),  a  crowd  unused  to  war. 

Note.  i.  —  Participles  in  -ns,  when  used  as  participles,  take  the  case 
regularly  governed  by  the  verb  to  which  they  belong  :  as, — 

Tiberius  sitiens  sanguinem  (Tac),  Tiberius  [then]  thirsting  for  blood. 

Note  2.  —  Occasionally  participial  forms  in  -ns  are  treated  as  participles 
(see  note  i),  even  when  they  express  a  disposition  or  character:  as,— 
virtus  quam  alii  ipsam  temperantiam  dicunt  esse,  aUi  obtemperantem 
temperantiae   praeceptis    et   earn   subsequentem    (Tusc.   iv.    30),  ob- 
servant of  the  teachings  of  temperance  and  obedient  to  her. 

c.  The  poets  and  later  writers  use  the  genitive  with  almost  any 
adjective,  to  denote  that  with  reference  to  which  the  quality  exists 
{Genitive  of  Specification) :  as,  — 

callidus  rei  mlUtaris  (Tac.  H.  ii.  31),  skilled  in  soldiership. 
pauper  aquae  (Hor.  Od.  iii.  30.  11),  scant  of  water. 
fessi  rerum  (iEn.  i.  178),  weary  of  toil. 

Remark.  — Adjectives  of  feeling  are  followed  by  the  apparent  genirive 
animi  (really  locative,  cf.  §  223.  c) '.  as, — 

aeger  animi,  sick  at  heart. 
cdnfiisus  animi,  disturbed  in  spirit. 


1 68 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  219- 


III.     Genitive  with  Verbs. 
The  Objective  Genitive  is  used  with  some  verbs. 

I.    Remembering  and  Forgetting. 

219.  (Rule  19.)  Verbs  of  Remembering  and  Forget- 
ting take  the  Genitive  of  the  object  vy^hen  they  are  used 
of  a  continued  state  of  fnindy  but  the  Accusative  when 
used  of  a  single  act :  as,  ^- 

1 .  Genitive  :  — 

recordans  superioris  transmissionis  (Att.  iv.  19),  remembering  your  former 
crossing. 

animus  meminit  praeteritorum  (Div.  i.  63),  the  soul  remembers  the  past. 
venit  mihi  in  mentem  illius  diei,  I  bethink  me  of  that  day  (it  comes  into 

my  mind  of  that  day), 
obllviscere  caedis  atque  incendidrum  (Cat.  i.  6),  turn  your  mind  from 

slaughter  and  conflagrations. 

2.  Accusative  :  — 

t5tam  causam  oblltus  est  (Brut,  217),  he  forgot  the  whole  case. 

pueritiae  memoriam  recordari  (Arch,  i),  to  recall  the  memory  of  childhood. 

a.  The  Accusative  is  almost  always  used  of  a  person  or  thing  re- 
membered by  an  eye-witness  :  as,  — 

memineram  Paullum  (Lael.  9),  l  remembered  Paul  us. 

b.  Recordor,  recollect,  recall,  denotes  a  single  act  and  is  therefore 
almost  always  followed  by  the  Accusative  :  as,  — 

recordamini  omnis  civllls  dissensiones  (Cat.  iii.   24),  recall  all  the  civil 
wars. 

c.  Verbs  of  reminding  take  with  the  accusative  of  the  person  a 
genitive  of  the  thing  ;  except  in  the  case  of  a  neuter  pronoun,  which 
is  put  in  the  accusative  (cf.  §  238.  b). 

Catillna  admonebat  alium  egestatis,  alium  cupiditatis  suae  (Sail.  Cat.  21), 

Catiline  reminded  one  of  his  poverty,  another  of  his  cupidity. 
unam  illud  monere  te  possum,  I  can  remind  you  of  this  one  thing. 

So  admoneo,  commoneo,  commonefacio,  commonefio.  But 
moneo  with  the  genitive  is  found  only  in  late  writers  (cf.  §  238.  b, 
note). 


\ 


\  . 


§  220.] 


CHARGE  AND  PENALTY. 


169 


Note.  —  All  these  verbs  often  take  de  with  the  ablative,  and  the  accusa- 
tive of  nouns  as  well  as  of  pronouns  is  sometimes  used  with  them :  as,  — 

saepius  te  admoneo  de  syngrapha  Sittiana  (Fam.  viii.  4,  ^]  I  remind  you 

again  and  again  of  the  bond  of  Sittius. 
ofEicium  vestrum  ut  vos  malo  cogatis  commonerier  (Plaut.  Ps.  150),  to  be 

reminded  of  your  duty. 

2.    Charge  and  Penalty. 

220.    (Rule  20.)  Verbs  of  Accusing,  Condemning,  and 
acquitting  take  the  genitive  of  the  charge  ox  penalty :  as,  — 

arguit  me  forti,  he  accuses  me  of  theft. 

video  n5n  te  absolutum  esse  improbitatis,  sed  illos  damnat5s  esse  caedis 

(Verr.  II.  i,  72),  /  see,  not  that  you  were  acquitted  of  outrage,  but  that 

they  were  condemned  for  homicide. 

a.  Peculiar  genitives,  under  this  construction,  are  — 

capitis,  as  in  damnare  capitis,  to  sentence  to  death. 

maiestatis  [laesae],  treason  (crime  against  the  dignity  of  the  State). 

repetundarum  [rerum],  extortion  (lit.  of  an  action  for  claiming  back  money 

wrongfully  taken), 
voti,  in  damnatus  or  reus  voti,  bound  [to  the  payment]  ofone^s  vow  ;  i.e. 

successful  in  one's  effort, 
pecuniae  (damnare,  iudicare,  see  note  under  3,  below). 
duplT,  etc.,  as  in  dupll  condemnare,  condemn  to  pay  twofold. 

b.  Other  constructions  for  the  charge  or  penalty  are  — 

1 .  The  ablative  of  price  :  regularly  of  a  definite  afnount  of  fine, 
and  often  of  indefinite  penalties  (cf.  §  252.  note) :  as,  — 

Frusinates  tertia  parte  agri  damnati  (Li  v.  x.  i),  the  people  of  Frusino  con- 
demned [to  forfeit]  a  third  part  of  their  land. 

vitia  autem  hominum  atque  fraudes  damnis  Igndminiis  vinculis  verbe- 
ribus  exsiliis  morte  damnantur  (De  Or.  i.  194),  but  the  vices  and  crimes 
of  men  are  punished  with  fines,  dishonor,  chains,  scourging,  exile,  death. 

2.  The  ablative  with  de,  or  the  accusative  with  inter,  in  idiomatic 
expressions  :  as,  — 

de  ^ez.,  for  gambling. 
de  2iTCih\t\x,  for  bribery. 

inter  sicarios,  as  an  assassin  (among  the  assassins). 

de    VI  et   maiestatis    damnati   (Phil,    i,    21),   convicted  of  assault  and 
treason. 


I/O 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§§  221,  222. 


3.    Verbs  of  Feeling. 

221.  Many  verbs  of  Feeling  take  the  genitive  of  the 

object  which  excites  the  feehng.     Thus,  — 

a.  Verbs  of  pity,  as  misereor  and  miseresco,  are  followed  by  the 
genitive  :  as,  — 

miserescite  regis  {Mxi.  viii.  573),  pity  the  king, 

miserere  animi  non  digna  ferentis  (id.  ii.  144),  pity  a  souly  etc. 

But  miseror,  commiaeror,  bewail^  take  the  accusative  :  as,  — 

communem  condicionem  miserarl  (Mur.  55),  bcT.vail  the  common  lot. 

•  b.  The  impersonals  miseret,  paenitet,  piget,  pudet,  taedet  (or 
pertaesum  est)  take  the  Genitive  of  the  cause  of  the  feeling  and  the 
Accusative  of  the  person  affected:  as,  — 

h5s  homines  infamiae  suae  neque  pudet  neque  taedet  (Verr.  i.  35),  these 
men  are  neither  ashamed  nor  weary  of  their  dishonor.  [Cf.  /'/  repenteth 
him  of  the  evil.'\ 

me  quidem  miseret  parietum  ipsorum  (Phil.  ii.  (if)),  for  my  part  I  pity  the 
very  walls. 

c.  An  infinitive,  a  clause,  or  the  accusative  (possibly  nominative)  of 
a  neuter  pronoun  may  be  used  with  these  impersonal  verbs  (except 
miseret)  instead  of  the  genitive  of  a  noun :  as,  — 

me  paenitet  haec  fecisse,  /  repent  of  having  done  this. 

nihil  quod  paenitere  possit  (Cic),  nothing  that  may  cause  repentance. 

4.    Interest  and  Refert. 

222.  The  impersonals  interest  and  refert  take  the  geni- 
tive of  the  person  (rarely  of  the  thing)  affected :  as,  — 

Clodi  intererat  Milonem  perire  (Mil.  56),  //  was  the  interest  of  Clodius  that 

Milo  should  die. 
vide5  enim  quid  mea  intersit,  quid  utriusque  nostrum  (Fam.  vii.  22),for 
I  see  what  is  for  my  good  and  for  the  good  of  us  both. 

The  subject  of  the  verb  is  a  neuter  pronoun  or  a  substantive  clause. 

a.  Instead  of  the  Genitive  of  a  Personal  Pronoun  the  correspond- 
ing Possessive  is  used  in  the  ablative  singular  feminine  with  interest 
or  refert :  as,  — 

quid  tua  id  refert  ?  magni  (Ter.  Ph.  723),  how  does  that  concern  you  ? 
much.     [See  also  the  last  example  above.] 


§  223.] 


VERBS  OF  PLENTY  AND  WANT. 


171 


i 


b.  The  accusative  with  ad  is  used  with  interest  and  refert  to  ex- 
pr  .ss  the  thing  with  reference  to  which  one  is  interested :  as,  — 

magni  ad  honorem  nostrum  interest  (Fam.  xvi.  i),  it  is  of  great  conse- 
quence to  our  honor. 
refert  ad  fructus  (Varr.  R.  R.  i.  16),  //  makes  a  difference  as  to  the  crop. 

5.    Verbs  of  Plenty  and  Want. 

223.    Some  verbs  of  Plenty  and  Want  govern  the  geni- 
tive :  as, — 

quid  est  quod  defensionis  indigeat  ?  (Rose.  Am.  34),  what  is  there  that 

needs  defence? 
satagit  rerum  suarum,  he  has  his  hands  full  with  his  own  affairs. 

Note.  —  But  verbs  of  plenty  and  want  more  commonly  take  the  abla- 
tive (see  §§  243.  a,  248.  f),  except  egeo,  indigeo,  satagd. 

6.    Other  Verbs. 

a.  The  genitive  sometimes  follows  ix)tior,  get  possession  of;  as 
always  in  the  phrase  potiri  remm,  to  be  fnaster  of  affairs.     Thus,  — 

illius  regni  potirT  (Fam.  i.  7,  5),  to  become  master  of  that  kingdom. 
Cleanthes  solem  dominari  et  rerum  potiri  puta^  (Ac.  ii.  126),  Cleanthes 
thinks  the  sun  holds  sway  and  is  lord  of  the  universe. 

But  potior  usually  takes  the  ablative  (see  §  249). 

b.  Some  other  verbs  rarely  take  the  Genitive  — 

1.  By  analogy  with  those  mentioned  in  §  221  :  as,  — 

neque  huius  sis  veritus  feminae  primariae  (Ter.  Ph.  971),  and  you  had 
*        no  respect  for  this  high-born  lady. 

2.  As  akin  to  adjectives  which  take  the  genitive  :   as,  — 

fastldit  mei  (Plaut.  Aul.  243),  he  disdains  me.     [Cf.  fastidiosus.] 
studet  tui  (quoted  N.  D.  iii.  72),  he  is  zealous  for  you.     [Cf.  studiosus.] 

c.  The  apparent  genitive  animi  (really  Locative)  is  used  with  a 
few  verbs  of  feeling  and  the  like  (cf.  §  218.  c.  Rem.):  as,  — 

Antiph5  me  excruciat  animi  (Ter.  Ph.  187),  Antipho  tortures  my  mind 
(me  in  my  mind). 

IV.     Peculiar  Genitives. 

d.  A  genitive   occurs  rarely  in  Exclamations,  in  imitation  of  the 
Greek  (^Genitive  of  Exclamation^ :  as,  — 

di  immortales,  mercim5nl  lepidl  (Plaut.  Most.  912),  good  heavens  !  what 
a  charming  bargain  I 


1/2 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§§  224,  225. 


e.  The  genitive  is  often  used  with  the  ablatives  causa,  gratia,  for 
the  sake  of;  ergo,  because  ofj  and  the  indeclinable  inatar,  like;  also 
with  pridie,  the  day  before j  postridie,  the  day  after;  tenus,  as  far 

as :  as,  — 

honoris  causa,  with  due  respect  (for  the  sake  of  honor). 

verbl  gratia,  for  example. 

eius  legis  ergo,  on  account  of  this  law. 

ecus  Instar  montis  i^Mn.  ii.  1 5),  a  horse  like  (the  image  of)  a  mountain. 

laterum  tenus  (^En.  x.  210),  as  far  as  the  sides. 

II.    DATIVE. 

Note.  —  The  Dative  seems  to  be  closely  akin  to  the  Locative  (cf.  of/cot, 
at  home,  with  or/cy,  to  a  house),  and  must  have  had  the  primary  meaning  of 
to  or  toivards.  But  this  local  meaning  appears  in  Latin  only  in  the  poets 
(§  225.  b.  3)  and  in  some  adverbial  forms  (as  eo,  illo,  thither). 

The  uses  of  the  Dative,  arranged  practically,  are  the  following :  — 

I.  As  Indirect  Object  Ji.  With  Transitives  (§  225). 

(general  use) :  \2.  With  Intransitives  (§§  226-28,  230). 

1.  Of  Possession  (with  esse)  (§  231). 

2.  Of  Agency  (with  Gerundive)  (§  232). 

3.  Of  Purpose  or  End  (predicate  use)  (§  233). 

4.  Of  Fitness,  etc.  (with  Adjectives)  (§  234). 

5.  Of  Reference  {dativus  commodt){%%  235, 236). 


2.  Special   or    Idiomatic 
Uses : 


224.  (Rule  21.)  The  Dative  is  used  of  the  object  in- 
directly affected  by  an  action.  « 

This  is  called  the  Indirect  Object  (§  177).  It  is  usually  denoted 
in  English  by  the  Objective  with  to  ox  for.     Thus, — 

dat  librum  puero,  he  gives  a  book  to  the  boy. 

cedite  tempori,  yield  to  the  occasion. 

provincia  Ciceroni  obtigit,  the  province  fell  by  lot  to  Cicero. 

I.    Indirect  Object  with  Transitives. 

225.  The  Dative  of  the  Indirect  Object  with  the  Accu- 
sative of  the  Direct  may  be  used  with  any  transitive  verb 
whose  meaning  allows  (see  §  177)  :  as,  — 

d5  tibi  librum,  /  give  you  a  book. 

illud  tibi  afflrmo  (Fam.  i.  7,  5),  this  I  assure  you. 


§  225.]        INDIRECT  OBfECT  WITH  TRANSITIVES. 


^71 


a.  Many  verbs  have  both  a  transitive  and  an  intransitive  use  (§  i  ^^, 
note).  These  take  either  the  Accusative  with  the  Dative,  or  the 
Dative  alone  :  as, — 

hanc  pecuniam  tibi  credo,  /  trust  this  money  to  you.     [Transitive.] 
in  hac  re  tibi  credo,  /  trust  you  in  this.     [Intransitive.] 

b.  Certain  verbs  implying  motion  vary  in  their  construction  be- 
tween the  Dative  of  the  Indirect  Object  and  the  Accusative  of  the 
End  of  Motion  (§  258.  b).     Thus,  — 

1 .  Some  verbs  take  the  Accusative  (with  or  without  a  preposition), 
instead  of  the  Indirect  Object,  when  the  idea  of  motion  prevails 
(§  258) :  as,  — 

litteras  quas  ad  Pompeium  scripsi  (Att.  iii.  9),  the  letter  which  I  have 
written  [and  sent]  to  Pompey.  [Cf.  non  quo  haberem  quod  tibi 
scriberem  (Att.  iv.  4),  not  that  I  had  anything  to  write  to  you.] 

litterae  extemplo  Romam  scrlptae  (Liv.  xli.  16),  a  letter  was  immediately 
written  [and  sent]  to  Rome. 

hostes  in  fugam  dat  (B.  G.  v.  51),  he  puts  the  enemy  to  flight.  [Cf.  ut 
me  dem  fugae  (Att.  viii.  23),  to  take  to  flight.] 

2.  On  the  other  hand,  many  verbs  usually  followed  by  the  Accu- 
sative with  ad  or  in,  take  the  Dative  when  the  idea  of  motion  is 
merged  in  some  other  idea  :  as,  — 

nee  quicquam  quod  non  mihi  Caesar  detulerit  (Fam.  iv.  i:^,  and  nothing 

which  Casar  did  not  communicate  to  me. 
eum  librum  tibi  mIsT  (id.  vii.  19),  I  sent  you  that  book. 
cures  ut  mihi  vehantur  (id.  viii.  4),  take  care  that  they  be  conveyed  to  me. 
cum  alius  alii   subsidium  ferrent  (B.  G.  ii.  26),  while  one  lent  aid  to 

another. 

3.  In  poetry  the  End  of  Motion  is  often  expressed  by  the  dative 
(see  §  258.  note  i). 

c.  For  the  Dative  of  the  person  and  the  Accusative  of  the  thing 
after  verbs  of  threatening  and  the  like,  see  §  227./. 

d.  Certain  verbs  may  take  either  the  Dative  of  the  person  and  the 
Accusative  of  the  thing,  or  (in  a  different  sense)  the  Accusative  of 
the  person  and  the  Ablative  of  the  thing  :  as,  — 

ddnat  coronas  suis,  he  presents  wreaths  to  his  men  ;  or,    , 

donat  suos  coronis,  he  presents  his  men  with  wreaths. 

aram  sanguine  adspergere  (N.  D.  iii.  88),  to  sprinkle  the  altar  with  blood. 

arae  sanguinem  adspergere,  to  sprinkle  blood  upon  the  altar. 


174 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  226. 


Such  are  dono,  impertio,  induo,  exuo,  adspergo,  inspergo,  cir- 
cumdo,  circumfundo,  prohibeo,  intercludo,  and  in  poetry  accingo, 
impHco,  and  similar  verbs. 

Note  i.  —  Interdico,  yi^^^V/,  takes  either  (i)  the  dative  of  the  person  and 
the  accusative  of  the  thing,  or  (2)  the  dative  of  the  person  and  the  ablative 
of  the  thing  ;  as, — 

interdixit  histridnibus  scaenam  (Suet.  Dom.  7),  he  forbade  the  actors  [to 
appear  on]  the  stage  (he  prohibited  the  stage  to  the  actors).  [Cf.  in- 
terdictum  est  mare  Antiati  populo  (Liv.  viii.  14),  the  sea  was  forbidden 
to  the  people  of  Antium.'\ 

aqua  et  igni  alicui  interdicere,  to  forbid  the  use  of  fire  and  water. 

Note  2.  —  The  Dative  with  the  Accusative  is  used  in  poetry  with  many 
verbs  of  preventing^  protecting,  and  the  like,  which  usually  take  the  Accu- 
sative and  Ablative.  Intercludo  and  arceo  sometimes  take  the  Dative  and 
Accusative,  even  in  prose  :  as,  — 

hisce  omnis  aditus   ad   Sullam   intercludere   (Rose.   Am.   no),  to  shut 
these  men  off  from  all  access  to  Sulla  (close  to  them  every  approach). 
[Cf.  uti  frumento  commeatuque  Caesarem  intercluderet  (B.  G.  i.  48), 
to  shut  CcEsar  off frofn  grain  and  stipplies^ 
hunc  (oestrum)  arcebis  pecori  (Georg.  iii.  1 54),  you  shall  keep  this  away 
from  the  flock.     [Cf.  ilium  arcuit  Gallia  (Phil.  v.  37),  he  excluded  him 
from.  Gaul.'\ 
solstitium  pecori  defendite  (Eel.  vii.  47),  keep  the  summer  heat  from  the 
flock. 

e.  Verbs  which  in  the  active  voice  take  the  accusative  and  dative 
retain  the  dative  when  used  in  the  passive  :  as,  — 

haec  nobis  nuntiantur,  these  things  are  told  us.  [Active  :  haec  [quidam] 
ndbis  nuntiat.] 

Crasso  divitiae  non  invidentur,  Crassus  is  not  envied  for  his  wealth. 
[Active  :  Crasso  divitias  non  invident.] 

decem  talenta  oppidanis  imperantur,  ten  talents  are  exacted  of  the  towns- 
people.    [Active  :  imperat  oppidanis  decem  talenta.] 


In 


di^t 


Object  with  Intransitives. 


226.    The  Dative  of  the  Indirect  Object  may  be  used 
with  any  Intransitive  verb  whose  meaning  allows  :  as,  — 

cedant  arma  togae  (Phil.  ii.  20),  let  arms  give  place  to  the  gown. 

Caesari  respondet,  he  replies  to  Ccesar. 

CaesarT  respondetur,  Ccesar  is  replied  to  (see  §  230). 


§  227.]  INDIRECT  OBfECT  WITH  INTRANSITIVES.     1 75 

credimus  nuntio,  we  believe  the  messenger. 
nuntid  creditur,  the  messenger  is  believed. 

respond!  maximis  criminibus  (Phil.  ii.  36),  I  have  answered  the  heaviest 
charges. 

Note  i.  —  Intransitive  verbs  have  no  Direct  Object.  The  Indirect 
Object,  therefore,  in  these  cases  stands  alone  (but  cf.  §  225.  a). 

Note  2.  —  Qh^h,  yields  sometimes  takes  the  Ablative  of  the  thing  along 
with  the  Dative  of  the  person  :  as,  — 

cedere  alicui  possessione  hortorum  (Mil.  75),  to  give  up  to  one  the  pos- 
session of  a  garden. 

a.  Many  phrases  consisting  of  a  noun  with  the  copula  sum  or  a 
copulative  verb  are  equivalent  to  an  intransitive  verb  and  take  a  kind 
of  indirect  object  (cf.  §  235)  :  as,  — 

auctor  esse  alicui,  to  advise  or  instigate  one  (cf.  persuaded). 

quis  huic  rei  testis  est  (Quinc.  37),  who  testifies  (is  witness)  to  this  fact? 

is  finis  populationibus  fuit  (Liv.  ii.  30),  this  put  an  end  to  the  raids. 

b.  The  dative  is  sometimes  used  without  a  copulative  verb  in  a 
sense  approaching  that  of  the  genitive  (cf.  §§  227.  d,  235.  d)\  as, — 

legatus  CaesarT,  a  lieutenant  to  Casar  {i.e.  a  man  assigned  to  Caesar), 
heres  fratrl  suo,  his  brother's  heir  (heir  to  his  brother), 
ministri  sceleribus,  agents  of  crime. 

Note. — The  cases  in  a  and  b  differ  from  the  constructions  of  §  227, 
note  2,  and  §  235  in  that  the  dative  is  more  closely  connected  in  idea  with 
some  single  word  to  which  it  serves  as  an  indirect  object. 


3.     Dative  with  Special  Verbs. 

Many  verbs  of  apparently  transitive  meaning  in  English  corre- 
spond to  verbs  intransitive  in  Latin.     Thus,  — 

227.  (Rule  22.)  Most  verbs  signifying  to  favor,  help, 
please,  trust,  and  their  contraries  ;  also  to  believe,  persuade, 
command,  obey,  serve,  resist,  envy,  threaten,  pardon,  and 
spare,  take  the  dative  :  as,  — 

ciir  mihi  invides,  7vhy  do  you  envy  me  ?        » 
mihi  parcit  atque  TgnSscit,  he  spares  and  pardons  me. 
Tgnosce  patrio  dolori  (Liv.  iii.  48),  excuse  a  father's  grief. 
non  parcam  operae  (Fam.  xiii.  27),  I  will  spare  no  pains. 
sic  mihi  persuasi  (Cat.  M.  78),  so  I  have  persuaded  myself. 


176 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  227. 


Note.  i.  —  In  these  verbs  the  Latin  retains  an  original  intransitive  mean- 
ing.    Thus  :  iiividere,  to  emy,  was  originally  to  look  askance  at  one. 

Note  2. — ^  Some  common  phrases  regularly  take  the  dative  precisely 
like  verbs  of  similar  meaning.     Such  are  — 

pracsto  esse,  he  on  hand  (cf.  adcsse). 

morem  gcrere,  Inimor  (cf.  morigerari). 

gratum  faccrc,  Jo  a  favor  (cf.  gratificari). 

dictu  aucliCns  esse,  he  ohiuiicnt  (cf.  oboedire). 

cui  fidem  habcbat  (li.  G.  i.  19),  in  tv/tom  he  had  cotifidcnce  (cf.  cunfidCbat). 

So,  also,  many  phrases  where  no  corresponding  verb  exists.     Such 
are  — 

bene  (male,  pulchrc,  aegrc,  etc.)  esse,  to  be  well  {ill,  etc.)  off. 

iniuriam  faicic,  do  injnstite  to. 

diem  dicere,  brini^  to  trial  (name  a  day  for,  etc.). 

agere  gralias,  to  express  one's  thanks. 

habere  gratiam,  to  feel  thankful. 

referre  gratiam,  to  repay  a  favor. 

opus  esse,  be  necessary. 

damnum  dare,  injlict  an  injury. 

acceptum  (e.xpCnsum)  ferre  (esse),  to  credit  (charge). 

hondrem  habere,  to  fay  honor  to-. 

a.  Some  verbs  apparently  of  the  same  meanings  take  the  Accu- 
sative. 

Such  are  iuvo,  adiuvo,  help  ;  laedo,  injure  ;  iubeo,  order ;  deficio, 
fail  J  delecto,  please.     Thus,  — 

hic  pulvis  oculum  meum  lacdit,  this  dust  hurts  tny  eye.     [CI.  mnlta  oculis 
nocent,  many  thini;s  are  injurious  to  the  eyes.] 

b.  Some  verbs  are  used  transitively\s\\\\  the  Accusative  or  intransi- 
tively with  the  Dative  without  perceptible  difference  of  meaning. 

Such  are  adulor  (generally  accusative),  aemiilor  (rarely  dative), 
comitor,  despero,  praestolor,  raedeor,  medicor.     Thus,  — 

adrdatus  est  Antonio  (Ncp.  Att.  8),  he  flattered  Antony. 
adfdari  Neronem  (Tac.  Ann.  xvi.  19),  to  Jlatter  Nero. 

c.  Some  verbs  are  used  transitively  with  the  Accusative  or  in- 
transitively with  the  Dative  with  a  difference  of  meaning. 

parti  civium  consulunt  (Off.  i.  85),  they  consult  for  a  fart  of  the  citizens. 

cum  te  consuluissem  (Fam.  xi.  29),  when  /  had  consulted  you. 

metuens  pueris  (Plaut.  Am.  1113),  anxious  for  the  children. 

nee  metuunt  deos  (Ter.  llec.  "j-jz),  they  fear  not  even  the  ^ods. 

prospicite  patriae  (Cat.  iv.  3),  have  regard  for  the  State. 

prospicere  sedem  senectutl  (Li  v.  iv.  ^^j),  to  provide  a  habitation  for  old  age. 


Vr 


■:■•- 


t. 


§227.] 


nA  TIVE    WITH  SPECIAL   VERBS 


^77 


Note.  —  Fido  and  confido,  trrtst,  take  the  Dative  or  the  Ablative  :  as,  — 
legionis  decimae  cui  quam  maxime  confldebat  (B.  G.  i.  42),  of  the  tenth 

legion,  in  which  he  had  the  utmost  confidence. 
multum  natura  loci  cr,nfldcbant  (15.  (;.  iii.  9),  they  had  great  confidence  in 

the  strength  of  their  position  (the  nature  of  the  place). 

d.  Some  verbal  nouns  — as  iusidiae,  ambush;    invidia,  cnvy^ 
lake  the  dative  like  the  verbs  from  which  they  are  derived  :  as,  — 

invidia  cunsull  (Sail.),  Ul-will  against  the  consul  (cf.  invideo). 
obtempcralif)  iGgibus  (Leg.  42),  obedience  to  the  Unvs  (cf.  obtempero). 
sibi  ipsi  responsio  (De  Or.  iii.  207),  an  answer  to  himself  {zi.  responded). 
Note.  —  In  these  cases  the  dative  depends  immediately  upon  the  verbal 
force  of  the  ncMin  and  not  on  any  complex  hlca  (cf.  §  226.  u  and  b). 

e.  The  Dative  is  also  used  — 

1.  With  the  impersonals  libet  (lubet),  it  pleases;  licet,  //  is  al- 
lo7ved :  as,  —  "" 

quod  mihi  mfiximG  lul,ct  (Fam.  i.  S),  what  most  pleases  me. 
quasi  tibi  nOn  liceret  (Fam.  vi.  8),  as  if  yon  were  not  permitted. 

2.  With  verbs  compounded  with  satis,  bene,  and  male :  as,  — 
mihi  ipse  numquam  satisfacio  (Fam.  i.  i),  I  never  satisfy  myself 

Optimo  viro  malcdicere  (Deiot.  28),  to  speak' ill  of  a  most  excellent  man. 

pulchrum  est  benefacere  reipublicae  (Sail.  Cat.  3),  ;/  is  a  glorious  thin- 

to  benefit  the  State.  '^ 

Note. -These  are  not  real  compounds,  but  phrases,  and  were  appar- 
ently felt  as  such  by  the  Romans.     'I'hus,— 

satis  officio  mco,  satis  illorum   vohmlail  qui  a  mc  hoc  petlvcrunt  factum 
esse  arbitrabor  (Verr.  v.  130),  ///,;/  ,„ough  has  been  done  for,  etc. 

3.   WJth  the  following  :  gratificor,  gratulor,  haereo  (rarely),  nubo. 
permitto.  plaudo,  probo,  studeo,  supplico,  excello :  as,  — 

hacrentcm  capiti  coronani  (Ilor.  S.  i.  10.  49),  a  ivreath  clingint^to  the  head. 
Pompeio    sc  gratificari  putant  (Fam.  i.   i),  they  suppose  they  are  doing 
Tompey  a  service. 

Note.  —  Misceo  and  iungo  sometimes  take  the  dative  (see  §  248.  a.  Rem  ) 
Haereo  usually  takes  the  ablative,  with  or  without  in. 

/    Many  verbs  ordinarily  intransitive  often  have  an  Accusative  of 
the  direct  object  with  the  Dative  of  the  indirect  (cf.  §  225. «):  as,— 

cui  cum  rex  crucem  minitarctur  (Tusc.  i.  102),  when  the  king  threatened 
htm  with  the  cross. 

imperat  oppidanis  decern  talenta,  he  exacts  of  the  townspeople  ten  talents. 


Ir    'I 


178 


COXSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  228. 


i 


4.    Dative  with  Compounds. 

228.  (Rule  23.)  Most  verbs  compounded  with  ad, 
aiito,   con,   in,   inter,   ob,    post,   piao,    pio,   sub,   super,  and    some 

with  circum,  take  the  dative  of  the  indirect  object  :  as,  — 

neque  cnim  adsentior  eis  (I.ael.  i3),/<'r  I  do  not  at^rcc  with  thrtn. 
tempestati  obsccjul  artis  est  (Fani.  i,  9,  21),  //  is  a  foitit  cf  skill  to  yield 

to  the  -veathcr. 
omnilnis  ncgotiia  nun  inlcrfiiit  suliun  sctl  pracfuit  (id.  i.  6),  he  not  only 

had  a  hand  in  all  matters,  but  took  the  lead  in  them. 
quantum  natura  hominis  pecudibus  antcccdit  (Off.  i.  10^),  so/ar  as  man's 

nature  is  superior  to  brutes. 

NoTK  I.  —  In  these  cases  the  dative  depends  not  on  the  preposition,  but 
on  the  compound  verb  in  its  acquired  meaning.  Hence,  if  the  actjuired 
meaning  is  not  suited  to  an  indirect  object,  the  original  construction  of  the 
simple  verb  remains  or  some  different  construction  arises.  Thus,  in  con- 
vocat  suos,  y/t'  calls  his  men  toi^ether,  the  idea  of  colli nt^  is  not  so  modified 
as  to  make  an  indirect  object  api)ropriate.  So,  homincm  intcrficcre,  to  make 
way  with  a  man  (kill  him).  15ut  in  praeficere  impcratorem  bello,  to  f-ut  a 
man  as  commander-in-chief  in  chari^e  of  a  7t>ar,  the  meaning  is  suited  to  an 
indirect  object  (see  «  and  e,  and  §  237.  d). 

Note  2.  —  Some  of  these  verbs  being  originally  transitive  lake  aKo  a 
direct  object :  as,  ne  offeramus  nos  periculis  ((.)ff.  i.  Sj),  ///,//  liv  may  not 
expose  ourselves  to  perils. 

a.  Some  compounds  of  ad,  ante,  ob,  with  a  few  others,  have 
acquired  .1  transitive  meaning,  and  lake  the  accusative  :  as, — 

nos  oppugnat  (Fam.  i.  i),  he  opposes  us. 
munus  o.-AXM.  (Lael.  7),  to  attend  to  a  duty. 

b.  The  idjcctivc  obvius  and  tbe  adverb  obviam  with  a  verb  take 
the  dative      is,  — 

si  illc  obvius  ei  futurus  non  crat  (.Mil.  .17),  //  he  was  not  intending;;  to ^qet 

in  his  way. 
mihi  obviam  venisti  (Fam.  ii.  16,  3),  jw/  came  to  meet  me. 

c.  Wlien  place  or  motion  is  distinctly  lhou;^bt  of,  the  verb's  of 
§  22S  regularly  take  a  noun  with  a  preposition,  not  the  dative  :  as,  — 

in  visceribus  inhaerere  (Tusc.  iv.  24),  //  remains  fixed  in  the  vitals. 
hominl  coniuncto  mecum  ('full.  4),  to  a  man  united  to  me. 
cum  hoc  concurrit  ipse  Kumenes  (N'ep.  Kum.  4,  i),  ruith  him  Kumenes 
himsc'.f  engages  in  combat  (runs  together). 


§§229.230.]  DATIVE  WITH  COMPOUNDS.  ,70 

quae  a    ccterarum  gentium  more  disscntiunt    (Font.    30),    whuh   di/Ter 

from  the  custom  of  all  other  nations. 
olmitur  contra  istr.run,  impetus  Ma.  e<i„nia  (Font.  44).  A/„eedon,a  is  set 

to  withstand  then-  attacks.     [(  f.  si  .,uis  vobis  error  obiectus  (Ca.x. 

5)»  {/ "'H'  ff'sfake  has  been  caused  you.] 
in  segrttm  fla,„rt,a  inci,lil  (.K,,.  ii.  30,,,  ,/,./,.:■ /.,lls  ufo„  lie s,.„.,/i„jr corn. 

-NoiF.  -  As  „snge  varies,  ll,c  cliclionary  nu.sl  l,c  consullcd  for  each  verl,. 

229.  (l^ui.K  24.)  Many  verbs  „f  (ni-ing  muaj'  and  ll.c 
l.kc  take  the  Dative  (especially  of  a /,rrson)  instead  of  the 
Ablative  of  Separation  (i^  243):  as, 

mulicri  Snu1u.n  dClraxit,  /,c  look  .,  rin^.frcm  the  wo,m,n. 
bona  mibi  abslulisti,_i„«  -iarr  >vN;;/  me  of  ,iiy  gains. 

a.  The  distinct  idea  of  motio,,,  -  and,  in  general,  names  of  Ihin.s, 
—  require  the  ablative  with  a  preposition  (§  i^^.a):  as,— 

illum.x  porlculo  f  rip„i.  (!!.<;.  iv.  .--),/,.,/,.„„,„//„„,„„/'</,/„„,,•,•. 

/'.  Son,etin.cs  the  .lativc  ot  the  person  and  the  ablative  of  the  thine 
with  a  prei)ositioii  are  both  used  with  the  same  verb :  as,  — 

vicloriam  eripi  sibi  e  manibus,  //,„/  -..Utory  shcnld  /v  -^,Im  fro,n  hU 
hands  (cf.  §  243.  /,).  ■>  ' 

^.  The  dative  is  often  used  hy  the  poets  in  constructions  whieh 
would  ,n  prose  re,,uire  a  noun  with  a  ,,reposition.  bo,  espeeiallv.  with 
verbsof  rcHAv/,//;/,.  (5  24,S./<):  as,— 

placit.-,„e  clian,  pugnShis  amod   (.ICn.  iv,  3.S),  „,///  y„,.  ,,        ^^ 
ai;ainsl  a  love  thai  pleases  you  > 

tibi  certal  (Kcl.  v.  8).  rvX.  j,.///,  yon.     [tecum  ] 

SnlMhium  pecori  ,ICfe,»Ii,e  (ICd.  vii.  .,;,.  irep  Ihe  snnnner  he.,  I /.on,  Ihe 
JfocA-.     (a  pccorc]  "^ 

latcri  al,>ii,li.  c„sen.  (.tin.  ii.  553,,  /.,„.,,/  „„  ,,,,„„,,  ^„  ,^.^ 

latere,  §  ;6o.,;.]  ■■ 

[For  the  Dative  instead  of  ad  with  the  Accusative,  see  §  2-5.  /,.  3.] 

230.  (Rl'i.ic  25.)  Thcpas.siveof  intransitive  verbs  that 
Kovern  the  dative  can  be  used  only  impersonally  (§  ,46 
d).     1  he  dative  is  retained  (cf.  §  225.  c). 

cui  p.irci  |.oluit  (liv.  .vxi.  14),  :,•,/,„  conl.l  he  sfaycH 
no,,  modo  „,-„,  invidetur  illi  aetati  veruin  e.iam  favetur  (Off.  ii.  45),  ,Hal 
V  O-outh)  ,s  nol  only  not  envied,  tut  is  ex-en  favored. 


}*! 


\ 


tlSdS^SitJBj 


i8o 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§§231.  232. 


d 


5.     Dative  of  Possession. 

231.  (Rule  26.)  The  Dative  is  used  with  esse  and 
similar  words  to  denote  Possession  :  as,  — 

homini  cum  deo  similitude  est,  vian  has  a  likeness  to  God  (there  is,  etc.). 
est  mihi  domi  pater  (I*2cl.  iii.  '},-^,  I  have  a  father  at  home. 

Remark. — The  Genitive  or  a  Possessive  with  esse  en  f)hasizes  the 
possessor;  the  Dative,  the  fact  oi possession :  as,  liber  est  mcus,  the  book  is 
mine  (and  no  one's  else);  est  mihi  liber,  I  have  a  book  (among  other  things). 
The  latter  is  the  usual  form  to  denote  simple  possession,  since  habeo,  have, 
generally  signifies  holtf,  often  with  some  secondary  meaning  :  as,  — 

legioncm  quam  sccum  habebat  (1>.  Cr.  i.  8),  the  lef;ion  which  he  kept  with 

him. 
domitas  habere  libldincs,  to  keep  the  passions  tinder  control. 


as, 


a.  Compounds  of  esse  take  the  dative  (except  abesse  and  posse): 

deest  mihi  pecunia,  I  lack  money. 

quid  mihi  proderit .'  /;/  what  will  it  help  vie  (what  will  it  profit  me)  .^  ^ 

b.  After  nomen  est,  and  similar  expressions,  the  name  is  usually 
in  the  dative  by  a  kind  of  apposition  with  \\\q.  person :  as,  — 

cui  Africano  fuit  cognomen  (Liv.  ,\xv.  2),  whose  (to  whom)  surname  was 
Afrir.anus. 

c.  Tlic  name  may  also  be  in  apposition  with  nomen ;  or  in  later 
Latin  in  the  genitive  (cf.  §  21 4./*):  as, — 

cui  nomen  Arethusa  (Verr.  iv.  118),  [a  fount]  called  Arethusa  (to  which 

is  the  name  Arethusa). 
puero   nomen   est  Marcus    (Marci),  the  boy's    name  is   Marcus  (to   the 

boy,  etc.). 

6.     Dative  of  the  Agent. 

232.  (Rule  27.)  The  IJative  of  the  A.i;cnt  is  used 
with  the  gerundive,  to  denote  the  person  on  whom  the 
necessity  rests  :  as,  — 

haec  vobis  provincia  est  dcfendenda  (Man.  14),  this  province  is  for  you  to 

defend  (to  be  defended  by  you), 
mihi  est  pugnandum,  /  ha7'e  to  fight  {i.e.  the  need  of  fighting  is  to  me; 

compare  mihi  est  liber,  /have  a  book,  §  231.  Rem.). 


§  ^-33] 


DATIVE   OF  THE  AGENT. 


181 


Note.  -  This  is  the  regular  way  of  expressing  the  agent  with  the  Second 
or  Passive  Periphrastic  Conjugation  (§  1,3.  d.  i).     But  when  a  dative  is 
.  expressed  governed  by  the  verb  itself,  and  rarely  at  other  times,  the  agent 
IS  denoted  by  the  Ablative  with  ab  (§  246)  to  avoid  ambiguity:  a.s.  - 
-  quibus  est  a  vobis   consulenclum  (Manil.  6),  for  whom  you  must  consult 
(for  whom  it  must  be  consulted  by  you). 
(Cf.  isti  principCs  et  sibi  et  ceteris  popull  RGmanl  universi  auctOritatl 
parendum   esse  fateantur   (id.  64).  let  these  leading  men   admit  that 
both  by  them  and  by  everybody  else  the  authority  of  the  Roman  people 
as  a  whole  must  be  obeyed     [Here  there  could  be  no  ambiguity.]) 
a.    The  dative  of  the  agent  is  common  :^iK^x perfect  parikipics 
(especially  when  u.sed  in  an  adjective  sense),  but  rare  after  other 
parts  of  the  verb  :  as, 

mihi  dcllber-itum  et  constitutum  est  (Rull.  i.  2^),  I  have  deltberated  and 
resolved  (it  has  been  deliberated  by  me). 

mihi  res  tola  provisa  est  (Verr.  iv.  91),  the  matter  has  been  fully  pro- 
vided  for  by  me. 

b    The  dative  of  the  agent  is  used  by  the  poets  and  later  writers 

with  almost  any  passive  verb  :  as, 

neque  cernitur  ulli  (/Kn.  i.  440),  nor  is  seen  by  any. 

fClix  est  dicta  sorori  (Ov.  Fast.  iii.  597).  she  was  called  happy  by  her  sister. 

c.  The  dative  of  the  person  who  sees  or  thinks  is  regularly  used 
with  videor,  seem  :  as,  — 

videtur  mihi,  /■/  seems  (or  seems  good)  to  me. 

dis  aliter  visum  [est]  (,lin.  ii.  42S),  tt  seemed  otherwise  to  the  gods. 

Note. -The  verb  probare,  appro^'e  (originally  a  mercantile  word),  takes 
a  Dative  of  Reference  (§  235),  which  has  become  so  firmly  attached  that  it 
IS  retained  uith  the  passive,  seemingly  as  Dative  of  Agent  :  as. - 

haec  sententia  et  illi  el  nobis  prolub.ltur  (Kam.  5.  7.  5),  tlis  view  met 

both  his  app,i>val  and  mine  (was  made  acccjjtable  lo,  etc  ) 
mihi  Cgregic.  probata  est  oratiO  tua  (Tusc.  iv.   8).  your  discourse  was 
very  satisfactory  to  me. 

7.     Dative  of  the  Purpose  or  End. 

233.   (Rule  28.)     The  Dative  is  used  to  denote  the 
Purpose  or  End. 

This  use  of  the  dative,  once  apparently  general,  remains  in  only 
a  few  constructions.     Thus, 


J!fi;| 


;• 


l82 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  234- 


i 


a.  The  dative  of  an  abstract  noun  is  used  to  show  thsit /or  which 
a  thing  serwes  or  which  it  accomplishes  (Dative  of  Service),  often 
with  another  dative  of  the  person  or  thing  affected  :  as,  — 

magn5  usul  nostris  fuit  (B.  G.  iv.  25),  //  was  of  great  service  to  our  men 

(for  great  use), 
tertiam  aciem  nostris  subsidio  misit  (id.  i.  52),  he  sent  the  third  line  as  a 

relief  to  our  men. 
omnia  deerant  quae  ad  reficiendas  naves  erant  usui  (id.  iv.  29),  all  things 

were  wanting  which  were  of  use  for  repairing  the  ships. 

Note.  —  The  word  frugi  used  as  an  adjective  is  a  dative  of  this  kind :  as,  — 

cogis  me  dicere  inimlcum  frugi,  you  compel  me  to  call  my  enemy  honest. 
(Cf,  ero  frugi  bonae  (Plaut."  Pseud.  468),  I  will  be  good  for  something.) 

b.  The  Dative  of  concrete  nouns  is  used  to  express  purpose  in 
prose  in  a  few  military  expressions,  and  freely  in  poetry  :  as,  — 

receptui  canere,  to  sound  a  retreat, 

locum  castris  capere,  to  select  a  site  for  a  camp. 

optavit  locum  regnd  (^En.  iii.  109),  he  chose  a  place  for  a  kingdom. 

Note.  —  The  construction  of  purpose  or  end  is  also  found  in  the 
dative  of  the  Gerundive  (§  2  ^9.  b)  and  after  Adjectives  (§  234). 

8.    Dative  with  Adjectives. 

234.  (Rule  29.)  The  dative  is  used  with  adjectives, 
to  denote  that  to  which  the  given  quality  is  directed^  for 
which  it  existSf  or  towards  which  it  tends. 

a.  The  dative  is  used  with  adjectives  (and  a  few  adverbs)  oi  fit- 
ness, nearness,  likeness,  service,  inclination,  and  their  opposites:  as, — 

nihil  est  tam  naturae  aptum  (Lael.  17),  nothing  is  so  fitted  to  nature. 
nihil  dif&cile  amanti  puto  (Or.  '>^'^,  I  think  nothing  hard  to  a  lover. 
rebus  ipsis  par  et  aequalis  oratio  (id.  1 23),  a  speech  equal  and  level  with 

the  subject. 
castris  id5neum  locum  deligit  (B.  G.  i.  49),  a  suitable  place  for  a  camp. 
congruenter  naturae  (Fin.  iii.  26),  in  harmony  with  nature. 

b.  Adjectives  of  fitness  or  use  take  oftener  the  Accusative  with 
ad  to  denote  the  purpose  or  end  ;  but  regularly  the  Dative  oi  per- 
sons :  as,  — 

apt  us  ad  rem  TS\\\\\.z.\QXf\,  fit  for  a  soldier's  duty. 

locus  ad  Insidias  aptior  (Mil.  53),  a  place  fitter  for  lying  in  wait. 

ndbis  utile  est  ad  banc  rem,  it  is  of  use  to  us  for  this  thing. 


§  235] 


DATIVE   OF  REFERENCE. 


183 


I 


c.  Adjectives  and  nouns  of  inclination  and  the  like  may  take  the 

Accusative  with  in  or  erga  :  as,  — 

comis  in  uxorem  (Hor.  Ep.  ii.  2,  133),  kind  to  his  wife. 

dlvlna  bonitas  erga  homines  (N.  D.  ii.  60),  the  divine  goodness  towards  men. 

d.  Some  adjectives  of  likeness,  nearness,  belonging,  and  a  few 
others,  ordinarily  requiring  the  Dative,  often  take  the  Possessive 
Genitive.     Thus,  — 

fuit  hoc  quondam  proprium  populi  Romani  (Manil.  32),  this  was  once  the 
peculiar  characteristic  of  the  Roman  people. 

1 .  The  Genitive  is  especially  used  with  these  adjectives  when  they 
are  used  wholly  or  approximately  as  nouns.     Thus,  — 

amicus  Ciceroni,  friendly  to  Cicero.     But,  Ciceronis  amicus,  a  friend  of 
Cicero;  and  even  Ciceronis  amicissimus,  a  very  great  friend  of  Cicero. 
hi  erant  affines  istius  (Verr.  iv.  14),  these  were  this  man^s  fellows. 

2.  After  Bimilis,  like,  the  genitive  is  more  common  in  early  writers. 
Cicero  uses  the  genitive  of  living  objects,  and  either  the  genitive  or 
dative  of  things :  as,  — 

domini  similis  es  (Ter.)  you're  like  your  master  (your  master's  like). 
Simla  quam  similis  turpissima  bestia  nobis  (N.  D.  i.  97,  quoted  from 

Enn.),  ho^  like  us  is  that  wretched  beast  the  ape! 
si  enim  h5c  illi  simile  sit,  est  illud  huic  (N.  D.  i.  ^),for  if  this  is  like 

that,  that  is  like  this. 

e.  The  adjectives  propior,  proximus  sometimes,  and  the  adverbs 
propius,  proxime  more  commonly,  take  the  accusative,  as  if  preposi- 
tions, like  prope  (see  §  261.  a). 

propius  periculum  (Liv.  xxi.  i),  nearer  to  danger. 

proxime  deos  accessit  Clodius  (Mil.  59),    Clodius  has  come  very  near 

the  gods. 
proximus  mare  5ceanum  (B.  G.  iii.  7),  nearest  the  ocean. 

9.    Dative  of  Reference. 

235.  (Rule  30.)  The  Dative  is  often  required  not 
by  any  particular  word,  but  by  the  general  meaning  of  the 
sentence  (dative  of  reference) :  as,  — 

laudavit  mihi  fratrem,  he  praised  my  brother  (out  of  regard  for  me ;  laa- 

da-nt  fratrem  meum  would  imply  no  such  motive), 
meritos  mactavit  honores,  taurum  Neptuno,  taurum  tibi,  pulcher  Apollo 

(^n.  iii.  1 18),  he  offered  the  sacrifices  due,  a  bull  to  Neptune,  a  bull  to 

thee,  beautiful  Apollo. 


1 84 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  236. 


§  237] 


ACCUSATIVE. 


185 


Note.  —  The  dative  in  this  construction  is  often  called  the  Dative  of 
Advantage  or  Disadvantage  {dativus  commodi  aut  incommodi),  as  denoting 
the  person  or  thing  for  whose  benefit  or  to  whose  prejudice  the  action  b 
performed. 

a.  The  dative  of  reference  is  often  used  to  qualify  a  whole  idea, 
instead  of  the  Possessive  Genitive  modifying  a  single  word  :  as, 

iter  Poenis  vel  corporibus  suis  obstruere  (Cat.  Maj.  75),  to  Nock  the 
march  0/ the  Carthaginians  even  with  their  own  bodies  (to  block,  etc., 
for  the  disadvantage  of,  etc.). 

b.  The  dative  is  used  of  the  person  from  whose  point  of  view  a 
situation  or  direction  is  defined. 

This  construction  answers  to  the  English  as  you  go  in,  and  the 
like.  The  person  is  commonly  denoted  indefinitely  by  a  participle  in 
the  plural :  as,  — 

oppidum  primum  Thessaliae  venientibus  ab  Eplr5  (B.  C.  ui.  80),  the  first 
t07vn  of  Thessaly  as  you  come  from  Epirus  (to  those  coming,  etc.). 

est  urbe  egressis  tumulus  (^n.  u.  713),  there  is,  as  you  come  out  of  the 
city,  a  mound  (to  those  having  come  out), 

c.  The  dative  is  (by  a  Greek  idiom)  rarely  modified  by  nolens, 
volens,  participles  of  nolo,  volo,  or  by  some  similar  word  :  as,  — 

ut  quibusque  bellum  invitis  aut  cupientibus  erat  (Tac.  Ann.  i.  59),  as  each 
might  receive  the  war  reluctantly  or  gladly. 

d.  The  dative  is  used  idiomatically  without  any  verb  in  colloquial 
questions  and  exclamations  :  as,  — 

quo  mihi  fortunam  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  5.  12),  of  what  use  to  me  is  fortune? 
unde  mihi  lapidem  (Hor.  Sat.  ii.  7.  116),  where  can  I  get  a  stone? 

e.  The  dative  is -sometimes  used  after  Interjections  :  as,— 

vae  victis,  woe  to  the  conquered. 

em  tibi,  there,  take  that  (there,  for  you) !     [Cf.  §  236.] 

hei  mihi,  ah,  me  ! 

zo.    Ethical  Dative. 

236.   The  Dative  of  the  Personal  Pronouns  is  used  to 
show  a  certain  interest  felt  by  the  person  indicated  }  as, 

1  Compare  "  I  '11  rhyme  you  so  eight  years  together."—  /^j  You  Like  It. 


/ 


2.  Two  Accusatives:-! 


quid  mihi  Celsus  agit  (Hor.),  what  is  my  friend  Celsus  doing? 
su6  sibi  servit  patri  (Plaut.  Capt.  Pro!.),  he  serves  his  mvn  father. 
This  construction  is  called  the  Ethical  Dative  {dativus  ethicus). 
It  is  really  only  a  special  case  of  the  dative  of  reference. 

Remark.  —  To  express   for,  meaning  instead  of,  in  defence  of,  in  behalf 
of  the  ablative  with  pro  must  be  used  :  as,  — 

pro  patria  mori  (Hor.  Od.  iii.  2),  to  die  for  one's  country. 

III.    ACCUSATIVE. 

The  uses  of  the  accusative  may  be  classified  as  follows  : 

fi.  Directly  affected  by  the  Action  (§  237). 

'•  """^^^  "^^^-"^  i.  Effect  of  .he  Action P"^"^  P™'^'-'^  <§  ^37)- 

( Cognate  Accusative  (§  238). 

1.  Predicate  Accusative  (of  Naming,  etc.)  (§  239.  a). 

2.  Of  Asking  or  Teaching  (§  239.  c). 
L3.  Of  Concealing  (§  239.  d). 

'i.  Adverbial  (§  240.  a,  b). 

2.  Of  Specification  (Greek, Accusative)  (§  240.  c). 
3.  Idiomatic  Uses  :   ^  3.  Of  Extent  and  Duration  (§  240.  e). 

4.  Of  Exclamation  (§  240.  d). 

5.  Subject  of  Infinitive  (§  240./). 

X.    Direct  Object. 

237.  (Rule  31.)  The  Direct  Object  of  a  transitive 
verb  is  put  in  the  Accusative  (§  177). 

The  accusative  of  the  Direct  Object  denotes  («)  that  which  is* 
directly  affected,  or  {b)  that  which  is  caused  or  produced  by  the 
action  of  the  verb  :  as,  — 

{a)  Brutus  Caesarem  interfecit,  Brutus  killed  Ccesar. 
(3)  aedem  facere,  to  make  a  temple.    [Compare  proelium  pugnare,  to  fight 
a  battle,  §  238.] 

Note.  —  There  is  no  definite  line  by  which  transitive  verbs  can  be 
distinguished  from  intransitive.  Verbs  which  usually  take  a  direct  object 
(expressed  or  implied)  are  called  transitive,  but  many  of  these  are  often 
used  intransitively  or  absolutely.  Thus  timed,  I  fear,  is  transitive  in  the 
sentence  inimicum  timed,  I  fear  my  enemy,  but  intransitive  {absolute)  in  noli 
timere,  don''t  be  afraid. 


1 86 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  ^yi' 


\ 


a.  The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice  becomes  its 
subject  in  the  passive,  and  is  put  in  the  nominative  (§  177.  rt):  as, — 

Brutus  Caesaiem  interfecit,  Brutus  killed  Ccesar. 

Caesar  a  Bruto  interfectus  est,  Ccesar  was  killed  by  Brutus. 

domum  aedificat,  he  builds  a  house. 

domus  aedificatur,  the  house  is  building  (being  built). 

b.  Many  verbs  apparently  intransitive,  expressing  feelings  take  an 
accusative,  and  may  be  used  in  the  passive  :  as,  — 

meum   casum   luctumque   doluerunt    (Sest.  145),  they  grieved  [at]  my 

calamity  and  sorrow. 
si  non  Acrisium  risissent  luppiter  et  Venus  (Hor.  O.  iii.  16.  5),  if  Jupiter 

and  Venus  had  not  laughed  [at]  Acrisius. 

c.  Verbs  of  taste.,  smell.,  and  the  like  take  an  accusative  of  the 
quality :  as,  — 

vTnum  reddens  (Cic),  smelling  [of]  wine. 

herbam  mella  sapiunt  (Flin.),  the  honey  tastes  [of]  grass. 

Note.  —  These  are  properly  Cognate  Accusatives  (§  238). 

d.  Verbs  of  motion,  compounds  of  circum  and  trans,  and  a  few 
others,  often  become  transitive,  and  take  the  accusative  (cf.  §  228. a): 
as,  — 

consulatum  ineunt  (Liv.  ii.  28),  they  enter  upon  the  consulship. 
si  Insulam  adisset  (B.  G.  iv.  20),  if  he  should  go  to  the  island. 
translre  flumen  (id.  ii.  23),  to  cross  the  river  (cf.  §  239.  b). 
Gives  qui  circumstant  senatum  (Cat.  i.  21),  the  citizens  who  stand  about  the 
senate. 

e.  The  accusative  is  used  with  the  impersonals  decet,  delectat, 
iuvat,  oportet,  fallit,  fugit,  praeterit :  as,  — 

te  non  praeterit  (Fam.  i.  8),  //  does  not  escape  your  notice. 

me  pedibus  delectat  claudere  verba  (Hor.  Sat.  ii.  i.  28),  my  delight  is  (it 

pleases  me)  to  arrange  words  in  measure. 
nisi  me  fallit,  unless  I  am  mistaken  (unless  it  deceives  me). 

So  after  latet  in  poetry  and  post-classical  prose  :  as,  — 

latet  plerosque  (Plin.  ii.  82),  //  is  unknown  to  most  persons. 

Note  3.  —  Many  verbs  usually  intransitive  are  sometimes  used  tran- 
sitively from  a  similarity  of  meaning  with  other  verbs  that  regularly  take 
the  accusative  :  as,  — 

multa  gemens  Ignominiam  (Georg.  iii.  226),  groaning  much  at  the  dis- 
grace.    [Cf.  doled,  §  237.  3.] 

festinare  fugam  (iEn.  iv.  575),  to  hasten  their  flight.     [Cf.  accelero.] 


§  238.] 


COGNATE  ACCUSATIVE. 


187 


/".In  early  and  popular  usage  some  nouns  and  adjectives  derived 
from  transitive  verbs  retain  verbal  force  sufficient  to  govern  the 
accusative :  as,  — 

quid  tibi  banc  tactio  est  (Plaut.  Poen.  1308),  what  business  have  you  to 

touch  her?     [Cf.  tango.] 
mirabundl   bestiam  (App.  Met.  iv.  16),  full  of  wonder  at  the  creature. 

[Cf.  miror.] 

g.  In  early  usage  the  impersonal  gerundive  with  esse  governs  the 
accusative  (§  294.  ^)  :  as,  — 

quam  n5bls  ingrediendum  sit  (Cat.  Maj.  6),  which  (road)  we  must  enter 
upon.     [Here  Cicero  purposely  uses  an  archaic  construction.] 

h.  Many  verbs  ordinarily  transitive  may  be  used  absolutely  (§  237. 
note),  having  their  natural  object  in  the  ablative  with  de :  as,  — 

priusquam  Pomponius  de  eius  adventu  cognosceret  (B.  C.  iii.  loi),  before 
Pomponius  could  learn  of  his  coming.  [Cf.  eius  adventu  cdgnito,  his 
arrival  being  discovered^ 

i.  For  Accusative  and  Genitive  after  Impersonals,  see  §  221.  b. 

2.    Cognate  Accusative. 

238.  (Rule  32.)  A  neuter  verb  often  takes  the  accusa- 
tive of  a  noun  of  kindred  meaning,  usually  modified  by  an 
adjective  or  in  some  other  manner.^ 

This  construction  is  called  the  Cognate  Accusative  or  Accusative 
of  Kindred  Signification.     Thus,  — 

tertiam  iam  aetatem  hominum  vivebat  (Cat.  Maj.  31),  he  was  now  living 

the  third  generation  of  7nen. 
coire  societatem,  to  [go  together  and]  form  an  alliance. 

a.  The  Cognate  Accusative  is  often  loosely  used  by  the  poets :  as, — 

saltare  Cyclopa  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  5.  63),  to  dance  the  Cyclops  (represent  in 

dancing). 
Amaryllida  resonare  (Eel.  i.  5),  to  reecho  [the  name  of]  Amaryllis. 
intonuit  laevum  (^n.  ii.  693),  //  thundered  on  the  left. 

b.  A  neuter  pronoun  or  colorless  noun  or  adjective  is  very  common 
as  cognate  accusative  (cf.  §§  148.  ^and  240.  «).     Thus, — 

Empedocles  multa  alia  peccat  (N.  D.  i.  29),  Empedocles  commits  many 
other  slips. 


i88 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  239- 


quid  me  ista  laedunt  (Agr.  ii.  32),  what  harm  do  those  things  do  me? 
hoc  te  moneo,  J  give  you  this  warning  (cf.  note,  below), 
id  laetor,  /  rejoice  at  this  (cf.  note,  below). 

So  in  many  common  phrases  :  as, 

si  quid  ille  se  velit  (B.  G.  i.  34).  if  he  should  want  anything  of  him  (if  he 

should  want  him  in  anything), 
numquid  me  vis,  can  I  do  anything  more  for  you  ?  (there  is  nothing  you 

want  of  me,  is  there  ?)     [A  common  form  of  leave-taking.] 
id  valet,  //  amounts  to  this.  . 

Note.  -  In  these  cases  substantives  with  a  definite  meaning  would  be 
m  some  other  construction  :  as, 

bonis  rebus  laetari,  to  rejoice  at  prosperity.     [Also  :  in,  de,  or  ex  1 

de  testaments  monere,  to  remind  one  of  the  will.  [Later:  genitive.  §219.^.] 

r.  A  few  verbs  in  isolated  expressions  take  the  accusative  from  a 
forcmg  of  their  meaning.     Such  expressions  are  — 

ferire  foedus,  to  strike  a  treaty  {i.e.  to  sanction  by  striking  down  a  victim), 
vmcere  ludicium  (sponsionem,  rem,  hoc),  to  prevail  on  a  trial,  etc      [As 

If  the  case  were  a  difficulty  to  overcome  ;  cf.  vincere  iter,  J^n.  vi.  688  1 
termm  navigare  (Fin.  ii.  112).  /i.  sail  crver  the  land     [Perhaps  quoted 

from  a  poet.]  ^ 

aequor  navigare,  to  sail  the  sea.     [As  if  it  were  transire,  §  237  d^ 
mana  aspera  iur5  (^n.  vi.  351),  i  swear  hy  the  rough  seas.    [The  accusa- 
tive with  verbs  of  swearing  is  chiefly  poetic] 

3.    Two  Accusatives. 

239.  Some  transitive  verbs  take  a  second  accusative  in 
addition  to  their  Direct  Object. 

This  second  accusative  is  either  (i)  a  Predicate  Accusa- 
tive or  (2)  a  Secondary  Object. 

a.    Predicate  Accusative. 

I.  An  accusative  in  the  Predicate  referring  to  the  same 
person  or  thing  as  the  Direct  Object,  but  not  in  apposi- 
tion with  it,  is  called  a  Predicate  Accusative  (cf  S  i8c 
head-note).  \    •  8    oj- 


f 

4 


i 


I      1 


§  239] 


SECONDARY  OBfECT. 


189 


a.  (Rule  33.)  Verbs  of  naming,  choosing,  appointing,  making, 
esteeming,  showing,  and  the  like,  may  take  a  Predicate  Accusative : 
as,  — 

Cicer5nem  consulem  creare,  to  elect  Cicero  consul. 
me  augurem  nominaverunt  (Phil.  ii.  4),  they  nominated  me  for  augur. 
hominem  prae  se  neminem  putavit  (Cic),  he  thought  nobody  a  man  in 
comparison  with  himself. 

Note  i.  —  The  predicate  accusative  may  be  an  adjective :  as, 

homines  ex  ferls  et  immanibus  mites  reddidit  et  mansuetos  (Inv.  i.  2), 

has  made  men  from  wild  and  barbarous  [creatures]  gentle  and  mild. 
Note  2.  —  In  changing  from  the  active  voice  to  the  passive,  the  pred- 
icate accusative  becomes  predicate  nominative  (§  185) :  as,  — 

rex  ab  suis  appellatur  (B.  G.  vii.  4),  he  is  called  king  by  his  [subjects]. 

b.    Secondary  Object. 

2.  (Rule  34.)  The  Accusative  of  the  Secondary  Object 
is  used  (along  with  the  direct  object)  to  denote  something 
more  remotely  affected  by  the  action  of  the  verb. 

b.  Transitive  verbs  compounded  with  prepositions  sometimes  take 
a  Secondary  Object,  originally  governed  by  the  preposition  :  as,  — 

Caesar  Germanos  flumen  traicit  (B.  C.  i.  83),  Ccesar  throws  the  Germans 
across  the  river. 

Note  i.  — But  with  these  verbs  the  preposition  is  more  commonly 
repeated,  or  sometimes  the  ablative  is  used  :  as,  — 

donee  res  suas  trans  Haljm  flumen  traicerent  (Liv.  xxxviii.  25),  till  they 
should  get  their  possessions  across  the  river  Halys. 

(exercitus)  Pado  traiectus  Cremonam  (Liv.  xxi.  56),  the  army  was  con- 
veyed across  the  Po  to  Cremona  (by  way  of  the  Po,  §  258.  g). 

Note  2.  —  The  secondary  object  may  be  retained  with  a  passive  verb  : 
as,— 

Belgae  Rhenum  traducti  sunt  (B.  G.  ii.  4),  the  Belgians  were  led  crver  the 
Rhine. 

Note  3. —  Sometimes  the  Secondary  Object  appears  to  become  the 
subject  of  a  passive  verb;  but  this  comes  from  a  change  of  meaning,  and 
the  object  is  really  Direct.     See  the  Remark. 

Remark.  — The  double  construction  indicated  in  b  is  possible  only  when 
the  force  of  the  preposition  and  the  force  of  the  verb  are  each  distinctly 
felt  in  the  compound,  the  verb  governing  the  Direct,  and  the  preposition 
the  Secondary  object. 


190 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  239- 


§  240.] 


IDIOMATIC   USES. 


191 


But  often  the  two  parts  of  the  compound  become  closely  united  to  form 
a  transitive  verb  of  simple  meaning.  So  traicio  comes  to  mean  either  (i) 
to  pierce  (anybody)  \by  hurling]  or  (2)  to  cross  (a  river,  etc.)  :  as,— 

(i)  gladio  hominem  traiecit,  he  pierced  the  man  with  a  sword.     [Here  iacio 
has  lost  all  transitive  force,  and  serves  simply  to  give  the  force  of  a 
verb  to  the  meaning  of  trans,  and  to  tell  the  manner  of  the  act.] 
(2)  Rhodanum  traiecit,  he  crossed  the  Rhone.    [Here  iacio  has  become  simply 
a  verb  of  motion,  and  traicio  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  transeo] 
In  these  examples  hominem  and  Rhodanum,   which  would  be  secondary 
objects  if  traiecit  were  used  in  its  primary  signification,  have  become  the 
direct  objects.     Hence  in  the  passive  construction  they  become  the  sub- 
jects and  are  put  in  the  nominative.     Thus, 

homo  traiectus  est  gladio,  the  man  was  pierced  with  a  sword. 
Rhodanus  traiectus  est,  the  Rhone  was  crossed. 

The  poetical  traiectus  lora  (^n.  ii.  ^^z),  pierced  with  thongs,  comes  from  a 
mixture  of  two  constructions  :  — 

(i)  eum  traiecit  lora,  he  rove  thongs  through  him,^  and 
(2)  eum  traiech  loris,  he  pierced  htm  -with  thongs. 

In  putting  the  sentence  into  a  passive  form,  the  direct  object  of  the  former 
(lora)  IS  irregularly  kept,  and  the  direct  object  of  the  latter  (eum)  is  made 
the  subject. 

c.  (Rule  35.)  Verbs  of  asking  and  teaching  may  take  two  accu- 
satives, one  of  the  Person  {direct  object),  and  the  other  of  the  Thing 
{secondary  object)  :  as,  — 

me  sententiam  rogavit,  he  asked  me  my  opinion. 

docere  pueros  elementa,  to  teach  children  their  A  B  Cs. 

Note  i.  — Some  verbs  of  asking  take  the  ablative  of  the  person  with  a 
preposition  instead  of  the  accusative.  So,"  always,  peto  (ab),  quaero  (ex, 
ab,  de)  often  postulo  (ab),  and  occasionally  others  :  as,— 

pacem  ab  Romanis  petierunt  (B.  G.  ii.  13),  they  sought  peace  from  the 
Romans. 

Note.  2.  —  With  the  passive  of  verbs  of  asking  or  teaching,  the  person 
or  the  thing  may  be  used  as  subject  :  as,  — 

Caesar  sententiam  rogatus  est,  C(tsar  was^^sked  his  opinion. 

Remark.  — The  accusative  of  the  t/iing  may  be  retained  with  the 
passive  of  rogo,  and  of  verbs  of  teaching  and  occasionally  with  a  few  other 
verbs  :  as,  —  X 

1  Perhaps  not  found  in  the  active,  but  cf.  traiecto  *-.ue  (^n.  v.  488). 


fuerant  hoc  rogati  (Gael.  64),  they  had  been  asked  this. 
Cicero  per  legatos  cuncta  edoctus  (Sail.  Cat.  45),  Cicero  being  informed 
of  everything  through  the  ambassadors. 

But  with  most  verbs  of  asking  in  prose  the  accusative  of  the  thing  becomes 
the  subject-nominative,  and  the  person  is  expressed  by  the  ablative  with  a 
preposition:  as, — 

ne  postulantur  quidem  vires  a  senectute  (Cat.  M.  34),  strength  is  not 
even  expected  of  an  old  man  (asked  from  old  age). 

d.  The  verb  cglo,  conceal,   may  take  two  accusatives,  and  the 
usually  intransitive  lateo,  lie  hid,  an  accusative  of  the  person  (ci 
§  237.^):  as,—  ^    * 

non  te  celavi  sermonem  T.  AmpI  (Fam.  ii.  16),  /  did  not  conceal  from  you 

the  talk  of  T  Ampins. 
nee  latuere  doll  fratrem  lunonis  (^n.  i.  130),  nor  did  the  wiles  of  funo 

escape  the  notice  of  her  brother. 

4.  Idiomatic  Uses. 

240.    The  Accusative  has  the  following  special  uses:  — 

a.  A  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective  is  used  ^s  cognate  accusative 
with  an  adverbial  force  {Adverbial  Accusative,  cf.  §  238.  b)  :  as,  — 

quid  moror,  why  do  I  delay  ? 

dulce  loquentem  (Hor.  Od.  i.  22.  24),  sweetly  speaking. 

acerba  tuens  {JEn.  ix.  794),  looking  cruelly. 

torvum  clamat  (id.  vii.  399),  he  cries  harshly. 

Note.  —  This  use  does  not  diff ef  from  the  cognate  accusative  except 
that  in  some  cases  the  connection  of  the  accusative  with  the  verb  has  faded 
out  so  that  the  words  are  real  adverbs.  But  no  fixed  line  can  be  drawn  be- 
tween these  two  constructions. 

b.  The  accusative  is  found  in  a  few  adverbial  phrases  :  as,— 
«  id  temporis,  at  that  time. 
>  id  (istuc)  aetatis,  at  that  age. 

id  (quod)  genus,  of  that  {what)  sort  (perhaps  originally  nominative). 
■>  meam  vicem,  on  my  part. 
^maximam  partem,/^r  the  most  part. 

virile  secus,  of  the  male  sex  (probably  originally  in  apposition). 
^   cetera,  in  other  respects. 
quod  si,  but  (a-  to  which)  //. 
quid  est  quod,  why  is  it  that? 


192 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  240. 


c.  The  so-called  synecdochical  or  Greek  accusative  is  used  by  the 
poets  to  denote  the  part  affected  :  as,  — 

caput  nectentur  (^n.  v.  309),  their  head  shall  be  bound  (they  shall  be 

bound  about  the  head), 
ardentis  oculos  suffectf  sanguine  at  !gnl  (id.  u.  2,0),  their  glarin.  eyes 

bloodshot  and  blazing  with  fire  (suffused  as  to  their  eyes  etc  ) 
nuda  genu  (id.  i.  320),  bare  to  the  knee. 

Note.  -  In  many  apparently  similar  expressions  the  accusative  may  be 
regarded  as  the  direct  object  of  a  verb  in  the  middle  voice  (§  1 1 1.  a) :  as,  - 
^        inutile  ferrum  cingitur  (^n.  ii.  510),  he  girds  on  the  useless  steel. 

nodo  sinus  collecta  fluentis  (id.  i.  320),  having  her  flying  folds  gathered 
tn  a  knot.  * 

mneios  insternor  pelle  leonis  (id.  ii.  722),  /  c<n.,r  my  shoulders  ■mitk  a 
Iton  s  sktn. 

d.  The  accusative  is  used  in  exclamations  :  as,  — 

Ofortunatam  rempublicam,  oh,  fortunate  republic!     [Cf.  O   fortunata 

mors  (Phil.  xiv.  31),  oh,  happy  death  !  (§241.  c).] 
me  miserum,  ah,  wretched  me  ! 
en  quatuor  aras  (Eel.  v.  65),  lo,four  altars  ! 
pro  deum  Mtm,  good  heavens  (oh,  protection  of  the  gods)  ! 
huncine  hominem  (Verr.  v.  62),  this  man,  good  heavens  I 
O  me  infellcem  (Mil.  102),  oh,  unhappy  me  ! 

Note.  -  The  omission  of  the  verb  has  given  rise  to  some  other  idiomatic 
accusatives.     Such  are  — 

salutem  (sc.  dicit)  (in  letters),  greeting. 
y,     <{nomMlorinn^Tn,  Of  What  use  is  fortune?   [Here  no  verb  is  thought  of.] 

e    (Rule  37.)  Duration  of  time  and  extent  of  space  are  expressed 
by  the  accusative  (see  §§  256,  257). 

/  (Rule  36.)  The  subject  of  the  infinitive  mood  is  in  the  accusa- 
tive. This  IS  especially  frequent  after  words  of  knowing,  thinking 
tellmg,.and  perceiving  {verba  sentiendi  et  declarandi,  see  §  272). 

g.  The  accusative  in  later  writers  is  sometimes  used  in  apposition 
with  a  clause. 

h.  For  the  accusative  of  the  End  of  Motion,  see  §  258^  for  that 
after  postridie,  propior,  etc.,  see  §  261.  a. 

[For  the  Accusative  with  Prepositions,  see  §  152.  a,  ^.J 


§§  241,  242.] 


VOCATIVE   Ai^D   ABLATIVE. 


193 


IV.     VOCATIVE. 

241.    The  Vocative  is  the  case  of  direct  address  :  as, 

Tiberine  pater,  te  sancte  precor  (Liv.  ii.  10),  O,  father   Tiber,  thee,  holy 
one,  I  pray. 

a.  A  noun  in  the  nominative  in  apposition  with  the  subject  of  the 
imperative  mood  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  vocative  :  as, 

audi  tu,  populus  Albanus  (Liv.  i.  24),  hear,  thou  people  of  Alba. 

b.  The  vocative  of  an  adjective  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the 
nominative,  where  the  verb  is  in  the  second  person  :  as, 

censorem  trabeate  salutas  (Pers.  iii.  29),  robed  you  salute  the.  censor. 

c.  The  nominative  may  be  used  in  exclamations  (cf.  §  240.  ^) :  as, 

en  dextra  fidesque  {Mxi.  iv.  597),  lo,  the  faith  and  plighted  word ! 

d.  The  word  macte  is  used  as  a  predicate  in  the  phrase  macte 
esto  (virtute),  success  attend  your  (valor).     Thus,  — 

iuberem  te  macte  virtute  esse  (liv.  ii.  12),  /  should  bid  you  go  on  and 
prosper  in  your  valor. 

Note.  —  As  the  quantity  of  the  final  e  in  macte  is  not  determinable,  it 
may  be  that  the  word  was  an  adverb,  as  m  bene  est,  and  the  like.  (See 
American  Journal  of  Philology,  Vol.  I.) 


V.    ABLATIVE. 

242.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  the  relations  ex- 
pressed in  English  by  the  prepositions  from,  in,  at,  with, 
BY :  as,  — 

llberare  metu,  to  deliver  from  fear. 
caecus  avaritia,  blind  with  avarice. 
occisus  gladio,  slain  by  the  sword. 

The  following  are  the  uses  of  the  Latin  Ablative,  classed  according  to 
the  original  cases  which  have  been  combined  in  it :  — 


I.  Ablative  {from)  :< 


1.  Of  Separation,  Privation,  and  Want  (§  243). 

2.  Of  Source  (participles  of  origin,  etc.)  (§  244). 

3.  Of  Cause  (gaudeo,  dignus,  etc.)  (§  24). 

4.  Of  Agent  (with  ab  after  Passives)  (§  246). 

5.  Of  Comparison  (than)  (§  247). 


194 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  243- 


Instrumental 
Ablative  {with) : 


■< 


'r.  Of  Manner,  Means,  and  Instrument  (§  248). 

2.  Of  Accompaniment  (with  cum)  (§  24S.  a). 

3.  Of  Object  with  the  Deponents  utor,  etc.  (§  249). 

4.  Of  Degree  of  Difference  (§  250). 
5-  Of  Quality  (with  Adjectives)  (§  251). 
6.  Of  Price  and  Exchange  (§  252). 

,7-  Of  Specification  (§  253). 

1.  Of  Place  wAer^r  (commonly  with  in)  (§  254). 

2.  Of  Idiomatic  Expressions  (§  2C4.  a) 
TIVE  (,«,  on,  at)  :^  3.  Of  Time  and  Circumstance  (§  256). 

4.  Ablative  Absolute  (§  255). 


3.  Locative  Abla- 


X.  Ablative  of  Separation. 

243.  (Rule  38.)  Words  signifying  Separation  or  Priva- 
tion are  followed  by  the  ablative,  with  or  without  a  prep- 
osition.  ^    ^ 

oculls  se  privavit  (Fin.  v.  87),  i,  deprived  himself  of  eye. 
leglbus  solutus,  relieved  from  the  obligation  of  laws 

Romans  from  the  whole  if  Gaul. 
voluptatibus  carere  (Cat.  Maj.  7),  to  laek  enjoyments. 
non  egeo  mediclna  (Lsl.  10),  I  want  no  physic 
.   magno  me  me.u  Hberabis  (Cat.  i.  ^o^,  you  will  relieve  me  of  great  fear. 
b.  Verbs  compounded  with  a,  ab,  de,  e;t,  take  the  simple  ablative 
when  ^^  figuratively  J  but  when  used  literally  to  denoteV^.X 
or  motton,  they  usually  require  a  preposition  (see  §  258)      Th^!! 
conatu  desislere  (B.  G.  i.  8),  to  desist  from  the  attempt. 
aUre  magistratu,  to  leave  one's  office. 
abstinere  iniOria,  to  refrain  from  wrong. 
But,-aberrare  a  proposito  (Cic),  to  wander  from  the  point. 
de  provmca  decedere  (Verr.  u.  49),  lo  withdraw  from  one's  province 

ZT  """'"  '^^^  ""■  "•  '>•  ""'  ''^P^rtcdfron,  the  sL.     [But  cf 
fln.bus  su<s  excesserant  (id.  iv.  ,8).  they  had  left  their  ou,n  terr.Zy^ 
a  magno  denussum  nomen  lulo  (M..  i.  .88),  a  name  descendeTZ] 
^oyiVi)  from  great  lulus.  ^ 


§244.]        ABLATIVE   OF  SOURCE  AND  MATERIAL. 


195 


^.  For  the  ablative  of  the  actual  place  whence  in  idiomatic  expres- 
sions, see  §  258.  a,  and  note  2. 

^.  Adjectives  denoting/r^^^^w  and  want  take  the  ablative  :  as,  — 

urbs  nuda  praesidio  (Att.  vii.  13),  the  city  naked  of  defence. 

immunis  militia  (Liv.  i.  43),  A^^  of  military  service. 

plebs  orba  tribunis  (Leg.  iii.  9),  the  people  deprived  of  tribunes. 

Note.  — Some  adjectives  of  want  take  the  genitive  (see  §  218.  a). 

e.  (Rule  39.)  Opus  and  usus,  signifying  need,  are  followed  by 
the  ablative  :  as,  — 

magistratibus  opus  est  (Leg.  iii.  5),  there  is  need  of  magistrates. 
nunc  vinbus  usus  (^n.  viii.  441),  nou>  there  is  need  of  strength. 

Note— With  these  words  the  ablative  of  X\i^  perfect  participle,  with  or 
without  a  noun,  is  often  found  (§  292.  b) -.  as,  — 

opus  est  tua  exprompta  memoria  atque  astutia  (Ter.  And.  723),  I  must 

have  your  good  memory  and  clez'erness  set  to  work. 
properato  opus  erat  (Mil.  49),  there  was  need  of  haste. 
facto  usus  est,  it  is  desirable  to  do  (there  is  need  of  it's  being  done). 

Remark.  -  Frequently  opus  is  in  the  predicate,  with  the  thing  needed  in 
the  nommative  as  subject :  as, 

dux  nobis  et  auctor  opus  est  (Fam.  ii.  6,  4),  we  need  a  chief  and  responsible 

adviser  (a  chief,  etc.,  is  necessary  for  us), 
si  quid  ipsi  opus  esset  (B.  G.  i.  34),  ;/  he  himself  wanted  anything  (if 

anythmg  should  be  necessary  for  him). 

/  Egeo  and  indigeo  often  take  the  genitive  (§  223)  :  as,  — 

ne  quis  auxili  egeat  (B.  G.  vi.  1 1),  lest  any  require  aid 

quae  ad  consolandum  maioris  ingeni  et  ad  ferendum  slngularis  virtutis 

mdigent  (Fam.  vi.  4,  2),  [sorrows]  which  for  their  comforting  need 

more  ability,  and  for  endurance  unusual  courage. 


2.    Ablative  of  Source  and  Material. 

244.  (Rule  40.)  The  ablative  (with  or  without  a  prepo- 
sition) is  used  to  denote  the  Source  from  which  anything 
IS  derived,  or  the  Material  of  which  it  consists. 

These  ablatives  commonly  take  a  preposition  :  as,— 

I.  Source  :  — 

Rhenus  oritur  ex  Lepontiis  (B.  G.  iv.  lo),  the  Rhine  rises  in  (from)  the 
country  of  the  Lepontii. 


ig6 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  244- 


2.  Material :  — 

valvas  magnificentiores,  ex  auro  atque  ebore  perfectiores  (Verr.  iv    124) 

more  splendid  doors,  more  finely  wrought  of  gold  and  ivory. 
templum  demannore  ponam  (Georg.  iii.  13),  /  v/^//^«  temple  of  marble. 
Note  i.  —  In  poetry  the  preposition  is  often  omitted. 

a.  Participles  denoting  birth  or  .r.^,«  are  followed  by  the  Abla- 
tive  of  Source,  generally  without  a  preposition  :  i  as,  — 
love  natus  et  Maia  (N.  D.  iii.  j6),  son  of  Jupiter  aj Maia. 
quo  sanguine  cretus  (^n.  ii.  74),  bor„  of  .what  blood. 
Remark. -A  preposition  (ab,  de,  eit)  is  usually  expressed  with  the 
name  of  the  mother,  and  often  with  that  of  other  ancestors  •  as  - 

Tros  est  generatus  ab  iUo  (Ov.  Fast.  iv.  ^i),  Tros  ^as  sprung  from  him. 
Belus  et  omnes  a  Belo  (^n.  i.  730),  Belus  and  all  his  descendants. 
6.  Rarely  the  place  of  birth  is  expressed  by  the  ablative ;  as,  _ 
deslderavit  C.  Felglnatem  Placentia,  A.  Cranium  Puteolis  (B.  C.'iU  7,) 

he  lost  C.  Felginas  of  Placentia,  A.  Granius  of  Puteoli 
Note.  -The  Roman  tribe  is  regularly  expressed  by  the  ablative  :  as,  - 
Q.  Verrem  Romilia  (Verr.  i.  23),  Quintus  Verres  of  the  Komilian  tribe 

c.  Some  verbs  may  take  the  Ablative  of  Material  without  a  prepo- 
sition. Such  are  constare,  consistere,  and  contlneri.  But  with  oon- 
stare,  ex  is  more  common.     Thus, 

domus  amoenitas  non  aediflcio  sed  silva  constabat  (Nep.  Att.  13)  the 

charm  of  the  house  consisted  not  in  the  buildings  but  in  the  woods. 
ex  animo  constamus  et  corpore  (Fin.  iv.  ,9),  a,,  consist  of  soul  and  body. 
vita  corpore  et  spiritu  continetur  (Marc.  28),  life  consists  of  My  and  spirit 

d.  The  Ablative  of  Material  without  a  preposition  is  used  with 
facere,  fien,  and  like  words,  in  the  sense  of  do  with,  become  of-  as  _ 

quid  hoc  homino  faciads  (Verr.  II.  i,  4.),  ^Hat  are  you  going  to  do  lith 
this  man  ?  o      o 

quid  TuUiola  mea  flet  (Fam.  xiv.  4),  what  willbecome  of  my  dear  Tullia  ? 
quid  te  f uturum  est  (Verr.  ii.  1 55),  ^hat  will  become  of  yoi,  ? 

e.  The  Ablative  of  Material  with  ex,  and  in  poetry  without  a  prepo- 
sition, sometimes  depends  directly  on  a  noun  :  as,— 

non  pauca  pocula  ex  auro  (Verr.  iv.  62),  not  a  few  \ups  of  gold. 
scopulis  pendentibus  antrum  (^n.  i.  ,66),  a  cave  of  hanging  rocks. 

J^r^r  "'*"'/"*°^'  ^^^*"«'   g-^tus,  ortus,  prognatus,  generatus, 
cretus,  creatus,  oriuodus. 


§  24S-] 


ABLATIVE   OF  CAUSE. 


3.  Ablative  of  Cause. 


197 


I 


246.    (Rule  41.)   The  ablative  (with  or  without  a  prepo- 
sition) is  used  to  express  Cause. 

nimio  gaudio  paene  desipiebam  (Fam.  ii.  9),  I  was  almost  wild  from  too 
great  joy. 

neglegentia  plectimur  (Lael.  85),  we  are  chastised  for  negligence. 

certis  de  causis,  for  certain^  reasons. 

mare  a  sole  lucet  (Acad.  ii.  105),  the  sea  gleams  in  the  sun  (from  the  sun). 

a.    (Rule  42.)    Certain  verbs  and  adjectives   regularly  take  the 
ablative  of  cause  without  a  preposition.     These  are 

1.  The  adjectives  dignus,  indignus:  as, — 

vir  patre  avo  maioribus  suis  dignissimus  (Phil.  iii.  25),  a  man  most  worthy 

of  his  father,  grandfather,  and  ancestors. 
te  omni  honore  indlgnissimum  iudicat  (Vatin.  39),  he  judges  you  entirely 

unworthy  of  every  honor. 

2.  The  verbs  dignor,  laboro    (also  with  ex),  exsilio,  exsulto, 
triumpho,  lacrimo,  ardeo :  as,  — 

haud  equidem  tali  me  dignor  honore  (^n.  i.  335),  I  do  not  deem  myself 
worthy  of  such  an  honor. 

doleo  te  aliis  malis  laborare  (Fam.  iv.  3),  lam  sorry  that  you  suffer  with 
other  ills. 

ex  aere  alieno  laborare  (B.   C.  iii.  22),  to  labor  under  debt   (lit.,  from 

another's  money), 
exsilui  gaudio  (Fam.  xvi.  16),  I  jumped  for  joy. 
delicto  dolere  (Lael.  90),  to  grieve  for  the  fault. 

Note  i. —  For  gaudeo  and  glorior,  see  §  254.  b. 

Note  2.  —  Dignus  and  indignus  sometimes   take  the  genitive  in  collo- 
quial usage  and  in  poetry  :  as,  — 

dignus  salutis  (Plaut.  Trin.  1153),  worthy  of  safety. 

magnorum  haud  umquam  indignus  avorum  (^n.  xii.  649),  never  unworthy 
my  great  ancestors. 

Note  3.  —  For  the  construction  of  dignus  and  indignus  with  verbs,  see 
§  320./ 

b.  The  motive  which  influences  the  mind  of  the  person  acting  is 
expressed  by  the  ablative  of  cause ;  the  object  exciting  the  emotion 
often  by  ob  or  propter  with  the  accusative  :  as, 


198 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  246. 


non  ob  praedam  aut  spoliandi  cupidine  (Tac.  H.  i.  63),  not  for  booty  or 

through  lust  of  plunder. 
amicitia  ex  se  et  propter  se  expetenda  (Fin.  iL  ^-^^  friendship  must  be 

sought  of  and  for  itself 

Note.  —  But  these  constructions  are  often  confused :  as, — 
parere  legibus  propter  metum  (Parad.  34),  to  obey  the  laws  on  account  of 
fear.     [Here  metum  is  almost  equal  to  "  the  terrors  of  the  law,"  and 
propter  is  used  where  the  ablative  would  be  more  natural.] 

c.    The  ablatives  causa  and  gratia,  for  the  sake  of  are  used  with 
a  genitive  preceding,  or  with  a  pronoun  in  agreement :  as,  — 

ea  causa,  on  account  of  this  ;  qua  gratia  (Ter.  Eun.  ^),for  what  purpose  ? 
mea  causa, /<?r  my  sake  ;  mea  gratia  (Plaut.),/^r  my  sake. 
praedictionis  causa  (N.  D.  iii,  5),  by  way  of  prophecy. 
exempli  gratia  (verbl  gratia), /<>r  example. 

Note.  —  But  gratia  with  possessives  in  this  use  is  rare. 

4.   Ablative  of  Agent. 

246.  (Rule  43.)  The  Voluntary  Agent  after  a  passive 
verb  is  expressed  by  the  ablative  with  a  or  ab  :  as,  — 

laudaturab  his,  culpatur  ab  illis  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  2.  11),  he  is  praised  by  these, 
blamed  by  those. 

ne  virtus  ab  audacia  vinceretur  (Sest.  92),  that  valor  might  not  be  over- 
borne by  audacity. 

Remark.  —  The  ablative  of  the  agent  (which  requires  a  or  ab)  must  be 
carefully  distinguished  from  the  ablative  of  instrument,  which  has  no  prepo- 
sition (§  248.  c.  i).     Thus, — 

occlsus  gladio,  slain  by  a  sword;  but,  occlsus  ab  hoste,  slain  by  an  enemy. 

a.  The  ablative  of  the  agent  with  ab  is  sometimes  used  after  neuter 
verbs  that  have  a  passive  sense  :  as,  — 

perire  ab  hoste,  to  be  slain  by  an  enemy. 

b.  The  agent,  if  conceived  as  instrument  or  means,  is  expressed 
by  per  with  the  accusative,  or  by  opera  with  a  genitive  or  possessive  : 
as, — 

Caesar  certior  factus  est  a  legatis,  Casar  was  informed  by  the  ambassa- 
dors (in  person).     But  — 

Caesar  certior  factus  est  per  legatos,  Casar  was  informed  by  ambassadors 
{i.e.  by  means  of  ambassadors). 

non  mea  opera  evenit  (Ter.  Hec.  228),  //  has  n't  happened  through  me  (by 
my  exertions). 


§  247-] 


ABLATIVE   OF  COMPARISON. 


199 


Note  i.  — An  animal  is  usually  regarded  not  as  the  agent,  but  as  the 
means  or  instrument.  Hence  the  simple  ablative  is  used.  But  ab  some- 
times occurs.     Thus, — 

equo  vehi,  to  ride  on  horseback  (be  conveyed  by  means  of  a  horse).     [Not 

ab  equo.]     But  — 
Lucano   cum  sic   lacereris   ab   uiso    (Mart.    Ep.   8),  since  you  are  thus 

mangled  by  a  Lucanian  bear. 
Note  2.  —  For  the  Dative  of  the  Agent  with  the  Gerundive,  see  §  232. 


5.    Ablative  of  Comparison. 

247.  (Rule  44.)  The  Comparative  degree  is  followed 
by  the  ablative  (signifying  than)  :  as,  — 

Cato  est  Cicerone  eloquentior,  Cato  is  more  eloquent  than  Cicero. 

quid  nobis  duobus  laboriosius  est  (Mil.  5),  what  more  burdened  with  toil 

than  we  two  ? 
villus  argentum  est  aur5,  virtutibas  aurum  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  i.  52),  silver  is  less 

precious  than  gold,  gold  than  virtue. 

a.  (Rule  45.)  The  comparative  may  be  followed  by  quam,  than. 
When  quam  is  used,  the  two  things  compared  are  put  in  the  same 

case  (cf.  §  208.  a). 

The  construction  with  quam  is  required  when  the  first  of  the  things 
compared  is  in  any  other  case  than  the  nominative  or  accusative. 
With  those  cases  its  use  is  optional.     Thus,  — 

contionibus  accommodatior  est  quam  iudiciis  (Clu.  2),  fitter  for  popular 

assemblies  than  for  courts. 
misericordia  dignior  quam  contumelia  (Piso  32),   more  worthy  of  pity  than 

of  disgrace. 
Remark.  —  Relative  pronouns  having  a  definite  antecedent  never  take 
quam  in  this  construction,  but  always  the  ablative  :  as,  — 

rex  erat  Aeneas  nobis,  quo  iustior  alter,  etc.  (iEn.  i.  544),  ^neas  was  our 

king,  than  whom  no  other  was  more  righteous,  etc. 
Note.  —  The  poets  sometimes  use  the  ablative  of  comparison  where  the 
prose  construction  requires  quam :  as,  — 

pane  egeo  iam  mellitis  potiore  placentis  (Hor.  Ep.  I  10.  11),  I  want  bread 
better  than  honey-cakes. 

b.  The  idiomatic  ablatives  opinione,  spe,  BoUto,  dicto,  aequo, 
credibili.  and  iusto  are  used  after  comparatives  instead  of  a  clause  : 
as, — 


200 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  248. 


i 


gravius  aequo  (Sail.),  more  seriously  than  was  right. 
celerius  opinione  (Fam.  xiv.  2^,  faster  than  one  would  think. 
amnis  solito  citatior  (Liv.  xxiii.    19),  a  stream  swifter  than  its  wont. 
serius  spe  omnium  (id.  ii.  3),  later  than  all  hoped  (than  the  hope  of  all). 

c.  After  the  comparatives  plus,  minus,  ampliua,  longius  without 
quam,  a  word  of  measure  or  number  is  often  used  with  no  change  in 
its  case  :  as,  —  i 

plus  septingenti  capti  (Liv.  xli.  12),  more  than  700  were  taken.  St**^^ 

plus  tertia  parte  interfecta  (Caes.),  more  than  a  third  part  being  slain. 
spatium  non  amplius  sexcentorum  pedum  (id.),  a  space  of  not  more  than 
600  feet. 

d.  Alius  is  sometimes  used  with  the  ablative  in  poetic  and  collo- 
quial use  ;  in  formal  prose  it  takes  ac  (atque),  nisi,  quam.      Thus,  — 

alius  Lysippo  (Hor.),  another  than  Lysippus. 
alio  ingenio  ac  tu  (Plaut.),  of  a  different  disposition  from  you. 
erat  historia  nihil  aliud  nisi  annalium  confectio  (De  Or.  ii.  52),  history 
was   nothing  else  but  a  compiling  of  records. 

e.  The  comparative  of  an  adverb  is  usually  followed  by  quam, 
rarely  by  the  ablative  except  in  poetry.     Thus, 

tempus  te  citius  quam  oratio  deficeret  (Rose.  Am.  89),  time  would  fail 

you  sooner  than  words.     But  — 
ciir  Sybaris  olivum  sanguine  viperino  cautius  vltat  (Hor.  Od.  i.  8.  9),  why 

does  Sybaris  shun  oil  more  carefully  than  viper's  blood? 


6.    Ablative  of  Manner. 

248.  (Rule  46.)  The  manner  of  an  action  is  denoted 
by  the' ablative  ;  usually  with  cum,  unless  a  limiting  adjec- 
tive is  used  with  the  noun.     Thus,  — 

cum  celeritate  venit,  he  came  with  speed.     But  — 
summa  celeritate  venit,  he  came  with  the  greatest  speed. 
quid  refert  qua  me  ratione  cogatis  (Lael.  26),  what  difference  does  it  make 
in  what  way  you  compel  me  ? 

Note.  —  But  cum  is  often  used  even  when  the  ablative  has  a  limiting 
adjective  :  as,  — 

quanto  cum  periculo  id  fecerit  (B.  G.  i.  17),  at  what  risk  he  did  this. 
Remark.  —  In  poetry  the  ablative  of  manner  often  omits  cum :  as,  ^  ^ 
mons  aquae  sequitur  cumulo   {Mn.  I  105),  a  mountain  of  water  follows 
in  a  mass.     [Cf.  murmure  (id.  124)  ;  rimis  (id.  123).] 


§248.]  ABLATIVES  OF  ACCOMPANIMENT  AND  MEANS.  20I 


7.    Ablative  of  Accompaniment. 

a.  (Rule  47.)  Accompaniment  is  denoted  by  the  abla- 
tive, regularly  with  cum :  as,  — 

cum  coniugibus  ac  liberis  vestrls,  with  your  wives  and  children. 
cum  funditoribus  sagittariisque  flumen  transgress!  (B.  G.  ii.  19),  having 
crossed  the  river  with  the  archers  and  slingers. 

Note.  —  The  ablative  is  used  without  cum  in  military  phrases,  and  here 
and  there  by  early  writers :  as,  — 

subsequebatur  omnibus  copiis  (B.  G.  ii.  19),  he  followed  close  with  all  his 

forces. 
hoc  praesidio  profectus  est  (Verr.  II.  i,  86),  with  this  force  he  set  out. 

Remark.  — Misceo  and  iungo,  with  their  compounds,  and  confundo  may 
take  either  (i)  the  Ablative  of  Accompaniment  with  or  without  cum,  or  (2) 
sometimes  the  Dative  :  as,  — 

mixta  dolore  voluptas  (B.  Al.  56),  pleasure  mingled  with  pain. 
fletumque  cruori  miscuit  (Ov.  Met.  iv.  ids^),  and  mingled  tears  with  blood. 
Caesar  eas  cohortes  cum  su6  exercitu   coniunxit   (B.   C.  i.  18),  Ccesar 
united  those  cohorts  with  his  own  army. 

b.  Words  of  Contention  and  the  like  require  cum :  as,  — 

armls  cum  hoste  certare,  to  fight  with  the  enemy  in  arms. 
libenter   haec  cum  Q.  Catulo  disputarem  (Manil.    66),  /  should  gladly 
discuss  these  matters  with  Quintus  Catulus. 

Note.  —  But  words  of  contention  may  take  the  Dative  in  poetry  (see  § 
229.  c). 

8.    Ablative  of  Means. 

c.  I.  (Rule  48.)  The  ablative  is  used  to  denote  the 
means  or  instrument  of  an  action  :  as,  — 

certantTs  pugnis,  calcibus,  unguibus,  morsu  denique  (Tusc.  v.  jy),  fight- 
ing with  fists,  heels,  nails,  and  even  teeth. 
cum  pugnis  et  calcibus  conclsus  esset  (Verr.  iii.  56),  when  he  had  been 
pummelled  with  their  fists  and  heels. 

2.  The  Ablative  of  Means  is  used  with  verbs  and  adjectives  of 
filling,  abounding,  and  the  like  :  as,  — 

aggere  et  cratibus  fossas  explent  (B.  G.  vii.  ^6),  they  fill  up  the  ditches 
with  earth  and  fascines. 

totum  montem  hominibus  complevit  (id.  i.  24),  he  filled  the  whole  moun- 
tain with  men. 

opimus  praeda  (Verr.  II.  i,  132),  rich  with  spoils. 


202 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§§  249.  250. 


Remark.  —  In  poetry  the  Genitive  is  often  used  with  these  words  by  a 
Greek  idiom.  But  compleo,  impleo,  plenus,  and  refertus  often  take  the  geni- 
tive in  prose  (cf.  §  223).     Thus, — 

omnia  plena  luctus  et  maeroris  fuerunt  (Sest.  \2^)y  everything  was  full 
of  grief  and  mourning. 

249.  (Rule  49.)  The  deponents  utor,  fnior,  fungor,  potior, 
vescor,  with  several  of  their  compounds,  govern  the  abla- 
tive :  as,  — 

utar  vestra  benignitate  (Arch.  18),  /  will  avail  myself  of  your  kindness. 
ita  mihi  salva  republica  voblscum  perfrui  liceat  (Cat.  iv.  \\),  so  may  1 

enjoy  with  you  the  state  secure  and  prosperous. 
auro  heros  potitur  (Ov.  Met.  vii.  155),  the  hero  takes  the  gold. 
fungi  inani  munere  (iEn.  vi.  885),  to  perform  an  idle  service. 

a.  Potior  sometimes  takes  the  Genitive,  as  always  in  the  phrase 
potiri  renim,  to  get  control  or  be  master  of  affairs  (§  223.  «) :  as,  — 

totius  Galliae  sese  potiri  posse  sperant  (B.  G.  i.  3),  they  hope  they  can  get 
possession  of  the  whole  of  Gaul. 


9.    Ablative  of  Degree  of  Difference. 

250.  (Rule  50.)  With  comparatives  and  words  imply- 
ing comparison  the  ablative  is  used  to  denote  the  Degree 
of  Difference  :  as,  — 

quinque  mllibus  passuum  distat,  //  is  five  miles  distant  (by  five  miles), 
aliquot  ante  annis  (Tusc.  i.  4),  several  years  before. 

multa  me  vigilare  acrius  (Cat.  i.  8),  that  I  watch  much  more  sharply 
(more  sharply  by  much). 

Remark.  —  This  use  is  especially  frequent  with  the  ablatives  quo  .  .  .  eo 
(hoc);  quanta  .  .  .  tanto  (cf.  §  106.  c):  as,— 

quo  minus  cupiditatis,  eo  plus  auctoritatis  (Liv.  xxiv.  28),  the  less  greed, 
the  more  weight  (by  what  the  less,  by  that  the  more). 

quantd  erat  gravior  oppugnatio,  tanto  crebriores  litterae  mittebantur 
(B.  G.  V.  45),  the  severer  the  siege  was,  the  oftener  letters  were  sent. 

Note. — To  this  construction  are  doubtless  to  be  referred  all  cases  of 
quo  and  eo  with  a  comparative,  even  when  they  have  ceased  to  be  felt  as 
degree  of  difference  and  approach  the  Ablative  of  Cause  :  as, — 

eoque  me  minus  paenitet  (N.  D.  i.  8),  and  for  that  reason  I  regret  less^ 
etc.  (by  so  much  the  less  I  regret). 


§§251,252.]    ABLATIVES  OF  QUALITY  AND  PRICE.  203 

a.  The  Ablative  of  Comparison  (§  247)  and  the  Ablative  of  De- 
gree of  Difference  may  be  used  together  with  the  same  adjective:  as, — 

multo  divitior  Crasso,  much  richer  than  Crassus. 

zo.   Ablative  of  Quality. 

251.  (Rule  51.)  Quality  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative 
with  a  Modifier  (either  an  adjective  or  limiting  genitive). 

This  is  called  the  Descriptive  Ablative  or  Ablative  of  Quality. 

anim5  melidre  sunt  gladiatdres  (Cat.  ii.  26),  the  gladiators  are  of  a  better 
mind. 

quae  cum  esset  civitas  aequissimo  iure  ac  foedere  (Arch.  6),  as  this  was  a 
city  with  perfectly  equal  constitutional  rights. 

mulierem  eximia  pulchritudine  (Verr.  II.  i,  64),  a  woman  of  extraordi- 
nary beauty. 

Note.  — The  Ablative  of  Quality  (like  the  Genitive  of  Quality)  modifies 
a  substantive  hy  describing  ii.  It  is  therefore  equivalent  to  an  adjective, 
and  may  be  either  attributive  or  predicate.  In  this  it  differs  from  other 
ablatives,  which  are  equivalent  to  adverbs.     Compare  — 

mulier  pulchra,  a  beautiful  woman. 

mulier  magna  pulchritudine,  a  woman  of  great  beauty,  with  — 

mulier  pulchritudine  Troiam  delevit,  by  her  beauty  a  woman  destroyed 

Troy. 
mulier  excellens  pulchritudine  (§  253),  a  woman  preeminent  in  beauty. 

a.  In  expressions  of  quality  the  Genitive  or  the  Ablative  may  often 
be  used  indifferently  ;  but  physical  qualities  are  oftener  denoted  by 
the  Ablative  :   as, — 

capillo  sunt  promisso  (B.  G.  v.  14),  they  have  long  hair. 


XI.  Ablative  of  Price. 

252.  (Rule  52.)  Price  is  expressed  by  the  ablative  : 
as,  — 

agrum  vendidit  sestertium  sex  milibus,  he  sold  the  land  for  6000  sesterces. 
Antonius  regna  addlxit  pecunia  (Phil.  vii.  15),  Antony  sold  thrones  for 
money. 

a.  Certain  adjectives  of  Quantity  are  used  in  the  genitive  to  de- 
note iftdefinite  value.  Such  are  magni,  parvi,  tanti,  quanti,  pluris, 
minoris  :  as,  '■ — 


204 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  253. 


I     est  mihi  tanti  (Cat.  ii.  15),  it  is  worth  the  price  (it  is  of  much). 
I     mea  magni  interest,  it  is  of  great  consequence  to  me. 
illud  parvi  refert  (Manil.  18),  this  is  of  small  account. 

Note.  — These  are  really  genitives  of  quality  (§215.  c). 

b.  The  genitive  of  certain  colorless  nouns  is  used  in  the  same  way. 
Such  are  nihiU,  nothing;  assis,  a  farthing;  flocci  (a  lock  of  wool) 
a  straw.     Thus,  — 

non  flocci  facio  (Att.  xiii.  50),  /  care  not  a  straw. 

utinam  ego  istuc  abs  te  factum  nihili  penderem  (Ter.  Eun.  94),  oh!  that  / 
cared  nothing  for  this  being  done  by  you  ! 

c.  With  verbs  of  exchanging,  either  the  thing  taken  or  the  thing 
given  in  exchange  may  be  in  the  Ablative  of  Price.  Such  are  : 
mutare,  commutare,  permutare,  vertere.     Thus, 

fidem  suam  et  religionem  pecOnia  commutare  (Cluent.  129),  to  barter  his 

faith  and  conscience  for  money. 
vertere  funeribus  triumphos  (Hor.  Od.  i.  35.  4),  to  change  the  triumph  to 

the  funeral  train  (exchange  triumphs  for  funerals), 
exsilium  patria  sede  mutavit  (Q.  C.  iii.  7),  he  exchanged  his  native  land 

for  exile  (he  took  exile  in  exchange  for  his  native  land). 

Note.  —  With  verbs  of  exchanging  cum  is  often  used,  perhaps  with  a 
different  conception  of  the  action  :  as, 

aries  ...  cum  croceo  mutabit  vellera   luto  (Eel.  iv.  44),  the  ram  shall 
change  his  fleece  for  [one  dyed  with]  the  yellow  saffron. 

d.  With  verbs  of  buying  and  selling  the  simple  ablative  of  price 
must  be  used,  except  in  the  case  of  tanti.  quanti.  pluris.  minoris : 
as, — 

quanti  eam  emit.?  vili  .  .  .  quot   minis?  quadraginta   mim's   (PI.   Epid. 
li).  what  did  he  buy  her  for  ?     Cheap.     For  hcrw  many  mines  ?  Forty. 

la.  Ablative  of  Specification. 

253.  (Rule  53.)  The  Ablative  of  Specification  denotes 
that  in  respect  to  which  anything  is  or  is  done :  as,  —    * 

virtute  praecedunt  (B.  G.  i.  i),  they  excel  in  courage.   - 

claudus  altero  pede  (Nep.  Ages  8),  lame  of  one  foot. 

sunt  enim  homines  non  re  sed  nomine  (Off.  i.  ios),for  they  are  men  not 

tn  fact,  but  in  name. 
maior  natu,  older  ;  minor  naXu,  younger  (cf.  §  91.  c). 


§  254.] 


ABLATIVE   OF  PLACE. 


205 


infirmus  mollisque  natura  (Lael.  75),  weak  and  yielding  by  nature. 
homo  mea  sententia  prudentissimus  (Caecin.  22),  a  man,in  my  opinion, 

very  wise. 
equitatii  pulsi  erant  (B.  G.  vii.  68),  they  had  been  beaten  in  the  cavalry 

fight. 
Note.  —  To  this  head  are  to  be  referred  many  expressions  where  the 
ablative  denotes  that  in  accordance  with  which  anything  is  or  is  done. 
But  as  the  Romans  had  no  such  categories  as  we  make,  it  is  impossible  to 
classify  all  uses  of  the  ablative.  Hence  the  ablative  of  specification  is 
closely  akin  to  that  of  manner,  and  to  many  ablatives  developed  from 
other  fundamental  ideas.     Thus, — 

meo  iure,  ivith  perfect  right ;  but,  meo  modo,  in  my  fashion. 
mea  sententia,  in  my  opinion  ;  but  also  more  formally,  ex  mea  sententia. 
[Here  the  sense  is  the  same,  but  the  first  ablative  is  specification  ; 
the  second,  source^ 
qui  vincit  viribus  (Lael.  55),  who  surpasses  in  strength.  [Here  it  is  im- 
possible to  tell  whether  viribus  is  the  means  of  the  superiority  or 
that  in  respect  to  which  one  is  superior.] 

a.   The  Supine  in  -u,  used  chiefly  wdth  adjectives,  is  equivalent  to 
an  ablative  of  specification  (cf.  §§  114.  b,  303)  :  as, — 
mirabile  dictii,  marvellous  to  tell. 


13.  Ablative  of  Place. 

254.  (Rule  57.)  The  ablative  is  used  to  denote  the 
place  where  (usually  with  the  preposition  in,  §  258.  c). 

a.  The  ablative  of  the  place  where  is  retained  in  many  idiomatic 
expressions  (cf.  §  259.  a^  which  have  lost  the  idea  of  place  :  as, — 

pendemus   animis    (Tusc.    i.   96),  we  are  in  suspense  of  mind  (in  our 

minds), 
socius  periculis  v5biscum  adero  (Jug.  85,  47),  /  will  be  present  with  you, 

a  companion  in  dangers. 
premit  altum  corde  dolorem  (^En.  i.  209),  he  keeps  down  the  pain  deep  in 

his  heart. 

b.  I .  Several  verbs  are  regularly  followed  by  the  ablative,  origi- 
nally of  place.  These  are  :  acquiesco,  delector,  laetor,  gaudeo,  glo- 
rior,  nitor,  sto,  maneo,  iSdo  (confido),  consists,  contineor. 

ndminibus  veterum  gloriantur  (Orat.  169),  they  glory  in  the  names  of  the 

ancients.     [Also,  de  divitils,  in  virtute,  circa  rem,  aliquid,  gloriari.] 
spe  niti  (Att.  iii.  9),  to  rely  on  hope. 
prudentia  fidens  (Off.  i.  8),  trusting  in  prudence. 


206 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§255- 


2.    (Rule  42.)    The  verbals  fretus,  contentus,  and  laetus  take 
the  ablative  either  of  place  or  means  /as,  — 

fretus  gratia  Bruti  (Att.  v.  21,  12),  relying  on  the  favor  of  Brutus. 

laetus  praeda,  rejoicing  in  the  booty. 

contentus  sorte,  content  with  his  lot.     [Possibly  abl.  of  cause.] 

Remark. —  The  ablative  mth  the  above  verbs  sometimes   takes   the 
preposition  in  (and  the  ablative  with  them  is  probably  locative):  as,  — 

in  quibus  causa  nititur  (Gael.  25),  on  whotn  the  case  depends. 

With  several  of  these  verbs  the  neuter  accusative  of  pronouns  is  often 
found. 


14.    Ablative  Absolute. 

265.  (Rule  54.)  A  noun  or  pronoun,  with  a  participle, 
may  be  put  in  the  ablative  to  define  the  time  or  circum- 
stances of  an  action  :  as,  — 

nondum  hieme  confecta  (B.  G.  vi.  3),  the  winter  not  yet  <yver. 
ne   vobis  quidem  omnibus  re  etiam  tum  probata  (Cat.  ii.  4),  since  at 
that  time  the  facts  were  not  yet  proved  even  to  all  of  you. 

a.  An  adjective,  or  a  second  noun,  may  take  the  place  of  the  parti- 
ciple in  the  Ablative  Absolute  construction  :  as,  — 

exigua  parte  aestatis  reliqua  (B.  G.  iv.  20),  when  but  a  small  part  of  the 
summer  was  left  (a  small  part  of  the  summer  remaming). 

M.  Messala  et  M.  Pisone  consulibus  (id.  i.  2),  in  the  consulship  of  Mes- 
sala  and  Piso  (Marcus  Messala  and  Marcus  Piso  being  consuls). 
[The  regular  way  of  expressing  dates,  see  §  259.  e.'\ 

b.  In  later  Latin  a  phrase  or  clause,  used  substantively,  sometimes 
occurs  as  ablative  absolute  with  a  participle  or  an  adjective  :  as, 

incerto  quid  peterent  (Liv.  xxviii.   36),  as   it  was  uncertain  what  they 

should  aim  at  (it  being  uncertain,  etc.). 
comperto  vanam  esse  formldinem  (Tac.  Ann.  i.  66),  when  it  was  found 

that  the  alarm  was  groundless. 

c.  A  participle  or  an  adjective  is  sometimes  used  adverbially  in  the 
ablative  absolute  without  a  substantive  :  as,  — 

consults  et  cogitato  (Off.  i.  27),  on  purpose  and  with  reflection  (the  matter 

having  been  deliberated  and  thought  on), 
sereno  (Liv.  xxxi.  12),  under  a  clear  sky  (it  [being]  clear). 


§  255] 


ABLATIVE   ABSOLUTE. 


207 


d.  The  Ablative  Absolute  in  its  developed  form  often  takes  the 
place  of  a  Subordinate  Clause,  the  noun  being  equivalent  to  a  subject, 
and  the  other  word  to  the  predicate.     So  may  be  replaced  — 

1.  Temporal  clauses  (§§  322  ff.)  :  as, — 

patre  interfecto,  [his]  father  having  been  killed.  [This  corresponds  to 
cum  pater  interfectus  asset,  when  his  father  had  been  killed.'] 

recentibus  sceleris  eius  vestlgiis  (Q.  C.  vii.  1,1),  while  the  traces  of  the 
crime  were  fresh.     [Cf.  dum  recentia  sunt  vestigia.] 

2.  Causal  clauses  (§  321)  :  as, — 

at  ei  qui  Alesiae  obsidebantur  praeterita  die  qua  auxilia  su5rum  exspec- 
taverant,  cdnsumpto  omni  frumehtd,  concilio  coacto  consultabant  (B. 
G.  vii.  77),  but  those  who  were  under  siege  at  Alesia  since  the  time^ 
etc.,  had  expired^  and  their  grain  had  been  exhausted^  calling  a 
council  (see  5  below),  consulted  together.  [Cf.  cum  dies  praeteriisset, 
etc.] 

Dareus,  desperata  pace,  ad  reparandas  vires  intendit  animum  (Q.  C. 
iv.  6,  i),  Darius,  since  he  despaired  of  peace,  devoted  his  energies  to 
T^ruiting  his  forces.     [Cf.  cum  pacem  desperaret.] 

3.  Concessive  clauses  (§  313)  :  as, — 

* 

at  eo  repugnante  fiebat  (consul),  immo  vero  eo  fiebat  magis  (Milo  34), 
but  though  he  (Clodius)  opposed,  he  (Milo)  was  likely  to  be  elected  con- 
sul;  nay,  rather,  etc. 

4.  Conditional  clauses  (§  304) :  as,  — 

occurrebat  ei,  mancam  et  debilem  praeturam  futuram  suam,  consule 
Milone  (Milo  25),  //  occurred  to  him  that  his  prcetorship  would  be 
maimed  and  feeble  if  Milo  were  consul,     [si  Milo  consul  esset.] 

qua  (regi5ne)  subacta  licebit  decurrere  in  illud  mare  (Q.  C.  ix,  3,  13),  if 
this  region  is  subdued,  we  shall  be  free  to  run  down  into  that  sea. 

qua  quidem  detracta  (Arch.  28),  if  this  be  taken  away. 

5.  Clauses  of  accompanying  circumstance  :  as, — 

ego  haec  a  Chrysogono  mea  sponte,  remote  Sex.  Roscio,  quaero  (Rose. 

Am.  1 30),  of  my  own  cucord,  without  reference  to  Sextus  Koscius  (S.  R. 

being  put  aside),  I  ask  these  questions  of  Chrysogonus. 
nee   imperante   nee  sciente   nee  praesente  domino  (Milo    29),  without 

their  master's  giving  orders,  or  knowing  it  or  being  present. 

Note.  —  As  the  English  case  absolute  (the  nominative)  is  far  less  com- 
mon than  the  ablative  absolute  in  Latin,  a  change  of  form  is  generally 
required  in  translation.     Thus  the  present  participle  is  oftenest  to  be  ren- 


2o8 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  256. 


dered  by  a  relative  clause  with  when  or  while ;  and  the  perfect  passive 
participle  by  the  perfect  active  participle  in  English.  These  changes  may 
be  seen  in  the  following  example  :  — 

"  At  illi,  intermisso  spatio,  inipru-  "  But  they,  having  paused  a  space, 

dentibus  nostris,  atque  occupdtis  in  while  our  men   were  unaware  and 

munitione   castrorum,  subito  se  ex  busied  in  fortifying  the  camp,  sud- 

silvis  eiecerunt ;    impeitiqnQ  in  eos  denly  threw  themselves  out  of  the 

facto,  qui  erant  in  statione  pro  cas-  woods,  then  making  an  attack  upon 

tris  collocatT,  acriter  pxignaverunt  ;  those  who  were  on  guard  in  front  of 

dudbusque  missis  subsidio  cohortibus  the  camp,  they  fought  fiercely,  and 

a  Caesare,  cum  hae  {perexiguo  in-  though  two  cohorts  had  been  sent  by 

iermisso  loci  spatio  inter  se)  consti-  Caesar  as  reinforcements,  after  these 

tissent,  novo  genere  pugnae /^r/<rr-  had  taken  their  position  (/<rat//«^z/<rry 

ritis  nostris,  per  medios  audacissime  little  space  of  ground  between  them) 

perruperunt,  seque  inde  incolumes  as  our  men   were   alarmed  by  the 

receperunt."  —  C^sar,  B.  G.  v.  15.  strange  kind  of  fighting,  they  dashed 

most  daringly  through  the  midst  of 
them,  and  got  off  safe." 


VI.     TIME  AND  PLACE. 
I.    Time. 

266.  (Rule  55.)  Time  wheuj  or  within  which,  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  Ablative  ;  time  how  long  by  the  Accusa- 
tive :  as,  — 

1.  Ablative  :  — 

constituta  die,  on  the  appointed  day  ;  prima  luce,  at  daybreak. 
quota  hora,  at  what  o'clock  ?  tertia  vigilia,  in  the  third  watch. 
tribus  proxumis  annis  (Jug.  1 1),  within  the  last  three  years. 

2.  Accusative :  — 

dies  continues  trTginta,y^  thirty  days  together. 

cum  triduum  iter  fecisset  (B.  G.  ii.  i6),  when  he  had  marched  three  days. 

a.  The  Ablative  of  time  within  which  sometimes  takes  in,  and  the 
Accusative  of  time  how  long,  per  for  greater  precision  :  as,  — 

in  diebus  proximis  decern  (Sail.),  within  the  next  ten  days. 

in  brevi  spati5  (Ov.  Met.  i.  411),  within  a  brief  space  (of  time). 

ludi  per  decem  dies  (Cat.  iii.  20),  games  for  ten  days. 

b.  Duration  of  time  is  occasionally  expressed  by  the  Ablative :  as,  — 

mflites  qainque  horia  proelium  sustinuerant  (B.  C.  i.  47),  the  men  had  sus- 
taimd  the  fight  five  h^mrt. 


§§  257.  258.]    PLACE  FROM   WHICH;  END  OF  MOTION.      209 


2.    Space. 

257.  (Rule  37.)  Extent  of  space  is  expressed  by  the 
Accusative  :  as,  — 

fossas  quindecim  pedes  latas  (B.  G.  vii.  72),  trenches  fifteen  feet  broad. 

in  omnI  vita  sua  quemque  a  recta  conscientia  transversum  unguem  non 
oportet  discedere  (quoted  in  Att.  xiii.  20),  in  all  one's  life,  one  should 
not  depart  a  naiVs  breadth  from  straightforward  conscience. 

a.  Measure  is  often  expressed  by  the  Genitive  of  Quality  (§215.  b)  : 
as, — 

vallo  pedum  duodecim  (B.  G.  ii.  30),  in  a  rampart  of  twelve  feet  (in 
height). 

d.  Distance  when  considered  as  extent  of  space  is  expressed  by  the 
Accusative  ;  when  considered  as  degree  of  difference,  by  the  Ablative 
(§  250)  :  as,  — 

qulnque  dierum  iter  abest  (Liv.  xxx.  29),  //  is  distant  five  days*  march. 
triginta  milibus  passuum  infra  eum  locum  (B.  G.  vi.  35),  thirty  miles  below 
^at place  (below  by  thirty  miles). 

3.     Place  from  Which  and  End  of  Motion. 

258.  (Rule  56.)  The  place  from  which  is  denoted  by 
the  Ablative  with  ab,  de,  or  ex;  the  place  to  which  (the 
End  of  Motion)  by  the  Accusative  with  ad  or  in :  as,  — 

1.  Place  from  which  :  — 

a  septentrione,  yr<7»i  the  north. 

de  provincia  decedere,  to  come  away  from  one's  province. 

de  monte,  down  from  the  mountain. 

negotiator  ex  Africa  (Verr.  II.  i,  14),  a  merchant  from  Africa. 

ex  Britannia  obsides   miserunt  (B.  G.  iv.  38),  they  sent  hostages  from 

Britain. 
M5sa  profluit  ex  monte  Vosego  (id.  iv.  10),  the  Meuse  (flows  from)  rises 

in  the  Vosges  mountains. 

2.  Place  to  which  :  — 

ad  fines  Hyrcaniae  penetrat  (Q.  C.  vi.  4,  2),  he  penetrates  to  the  borders  of 

Hyrcania. 
in  Africam  navigavit,  he  sailed  to  Africa. 
in  Ttaliam  profectus,  gone  to  Italy. 
legatum  in  Treveros  mittit  (B.  G.  iii.  11),  he  sends  his  lieutenant  into  the 

[coimtry  of  the]  Treveri. 


2IO 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES, 


[§  258- 


Note  i  .  —  In  poetry  the  end  of  motion  is  often  expressed  by  the  Dative 
(§  225.  <J.  3) :  as,  — 

it  clamor  caelo  (^n.  v.  451),  a  shout  goes  up  to  the  sky. 

a.  (Rule  56.)  The  names  of  towns  or  small  islands /r^w  which, 
as  also  domus  and  riis,  are  put  in  the  Ablative  without  a  preposition  : 
as, — 

R5ma  profectus,  having  set  out  from  Rome. 
rure  reversus,  having  returned  from  the  country. 
R5ma  abesse,  to  be  absent  from,  Rome. 
domo  abire,  to  leave  home. 

Note  i.  —  With  names  of  towns,  etc.,  ab  is  often  used,  commonly  to 
denote  from  the  vicinity  of:  as,  — 

erat  a  Gergovia  despectus  in  castra  (B.  G.  vii.  45),  there  was  from  about 

G.  a  view  into  the  camp. 
profecti  a  domo  (Liv.  xl.  t^^,  setting  out  from  home. 

Note  2. — The  ablative  without  a  preposition  is  used  to  denote  the 
place  from  which  in  certain  idiomatic  expressions  :  as,  — 

cessisset  patria  (Mil.  68),  he  would  have  left  his  country. 

patria  pellere,  to  drive  out  of  the  country. 

manu  mittere,  to  emancipate  (let  go  from  the  hand). 

Note  3.  —  The  poets  often  omit  the  preposition  where  it  would  be 
required  in  prose  :  as, — 

manis  Acheronte  remissos  (^En.  v.  99),  the  spirits  returned  from  Acheron. 

b.  (Rule  ^d.')  The  names  of  towns  or  small  islands  to  which,  as 
also  domus  and  rus,  are  put  in  the  Accusative  without  a  preposition  : 
as, — 

Romam  rediit,  he  returned  to  Rome. 

Del5  Rhodum  navigare,  to  sail  from  Delos  to  Rhodes. 

rus  ibo,  /  shall  go  into  the  country. 

domum  iit,  he  went  home.     [So,  suas  domos  abire,  to  go  to  their  homes.l 

Note  i  .  —  In  this  use  domum  may  be  modified  by  a  possessive  pronoun 
or  a  genitive.  When  otherwise  modified,  domum  requires  the  preposition 
in.      Thus,  — 

domum  regis  (Deiot.  17),  to  the  king's  house.     [But  also  in  M.  Laecae 

domum  (Cat.  i.  8),  to  M.  Laca's  house.']     But  — 
in  domum  magnam  venire,  to  come  into  a  large  house. 

Note  2.  —  With  the  names  of  towns,  etc.,  ad  may  be  used  in  the  sense 
of  towards,  to  the  neighborhood  of:  as,  — 


§  258.] 


THE  PLACE   WHERE. 


211 


ad  Alesiam  proficiscuntur  (B.  G.  vii.  76),  they  set  out  for  Alesia. 

ad  Alesiam  perveniunt  (id.  vii.  79),  they  arrive  at  Alesia  (come  through  to). 

ad  Athenas  navigare,  to  set  sail  for  Athens  (landing  in  the  harbor). 

Note  3.  —  The  general  words,  urbs,  oppidum,  insula,  require  a  preposi- 
tion in  either  construction  (to  which  or  from  which) :  as,  ad  urbem,  ab  urbe, 
**  a^^urbem  Romam,  R5mam  ad  urbem,  ex  urbe  R5ma. 

Note  4.  —  Two  or  more  nouns  are  sometimes  expressed  after  one  verb 
"^limits  of  motion  (see  §  259.  h). 

Note  5.  —  The  poets  often  omit  the  preposition  with  any  noun  :  as,  — 

Italiam^  Lavlniaque  venit  litora  (^n.  i.    2),  he  came  to  Italy  and  the 

Lavinian  shores. 
finis  Italos  mittere  (id.  iii.  440),  you  shall  be  allowed  to  reach  the  Italian 

boundaries. 

Remark.  —  The  preposition  is  omitted  with  the  supine  in  -um  (§  302) 
and  in  the  following  old  phrases  :  — 


exsequias  ire,  to  go  to  the  funeral. 
pessum  ire,  to  go  to  ruin. 
venum  dare,  to  sell  (give  to  sale). 
venuBi  ire,  to  be  sold  (go  to  sale). 


infitias  ire,  to  resort  to  denial. 

pessum  dare,  to  ruin  (cf.  perdo). 
[Hence  venders.] 
[Hence  venire.] 


foras  (used  as  adverb),  out :  as,  foraS  egredi,  to  go  out  of  doors. 


4.    The  Place  Where. 

c.  (Rule  57.)  i.  T^xq  place  ivhere  is  denoted  by  the 
Ablative  with  the  preposition  in  {Locative  Ablative)  :  as,  — 

in  hac  urbe  vitam  degit,  he  passed  his  life  in  this  city. 

si  in  Gallia  remanerent  (B.  G.  iv.  8),  //  they  should  stay  in  Gaul. 

oppidum  in  insula  positum  (id.  vii.  58),  a  town  situated  on  an  island. 

2.  (Rule  $7.)  But  names  of  towns  and  small  islands 
are  put  in  the  Locative  Case.      (See  36.  Cy  40.  a^  and  62.) 

Romae,  at  Rome  (Roma).  Athenis,  at  Athens  (Athenae). 

Remark.  —  Large  islands,  and  all  places  when  thought  of  as  a  territory 
and  not  as  a  locality,  are  treated  like  names  of  countries  :  as,  — 

in  Sicilia,  in  Sicily. 

in  Ithaca  lepores  illati  moriuntur  (Plin,  H.  N.),  in  Ithaca  hares  when 
carried  there  die.     \Ulysses  lived  at  Ithaca,  would  require  Ithacae.] 

Note  i.  —  With  all  names  of  places  at,  meaning  near  (not  in),  is  ex- 
pressed by  ad  or  apud  with  the  Accusative.  In  the  neighborhood  of  ma.y  he 
expressed  by  circa  with  the  Accusative ;  among,  by  apud  with  the  Accusa- 
tive.    Thus,  — 


212 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§  258. 


pugna  ad  Cannas,  the  fight  at  Cannes. 

conchas  ad  Caietam  legunt  (De  Or.  ii.  22),  at  Caieta  (along  the  shore), 
ad  (apud)  inferos,  in  the  world  below  (near  or  among  those  below), 
apud  Graecos,  among  the  Greeks.       apud  me,  at  my  house. 

Note  2.  —  In  citing  an  author^  apud  is  regularly  used  ;  in  citing  a  partic- 
ular work,  in.     Thus,  — 

apud  Xenophontem,  in  Xenophon.     But  — 

in  Xenophontis  Oeconomico,  in  Xenophon  s  CEconomicus. 

d.  (Rule  57.)  The  Locative  Case  is  also  preserved  in  the  follow- 
ing common  nouns  :  — 

domi  (rarely  domui),  at  home. 

belli,  militiae  (in  contrast  to  domi),  abroad,  in  military  service. 

humi,  on  the  ground.  ruri,  in  the  country. 

foils,  out-of-doors.  terra  marique,  by  land  and  sea. 

These  are  used  like  names  of  towns,  without  a  preposition.  So, 
also, — 

hQi\{-e),  yesterday.  vesperi  (e),  in  the  evening. 

infelici  arbori  (Liv.  i.  26),  on  the  ill-omened  tree. 

e.  The  locative  domi  may  be  modified  by  a  possessive  adjective 
or  a  limiting  genitive  ;  but  when  it  would  be  otherwise  modified  some 
other  construction  is  used  instead  of  the  Locative.     Thus,  — 

domi  Caesaris,  at  Ccesar^s  house. 

domi  suae  vel  alienae,  at  his  own  or  another* s  house.     But  — 
in  Marcl  CrassI  castissima  domo  (Gael.  9),  in  the  chaste  home  of  Marcus 
Crassus.     [Cf.  ex  Anniana  Mil5nis  domo,  §  184.  d.'\ 

f.  The  place  where  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  without  a  prepo- 
sition in  several  constructions  :  — 

1.  Regularly  in  many  indefinite  words,  such  as  loco,  parte:  as, — 

quibus  loco  positis  (De  Or.  iii.  153),  when  these  are  set  in  position. 
qua  parte  victi  erant  (Cic),  on  the  side  where  they  were  beaten.    But  — 
exercitum  castris   continuit    (B.  G.  i.    48),  he  kept  his  army  in  camp. 
[Here  the  construction  is  influenced  by  means.] 

2.  Frequently  with  nouns  which  are  qualified  by  adjectives  (regu- 
larly when  totus  is  used)  :  as,  — 

media  urbe  (Liv.  i.  ^^),  in  the  middle  of  the  city. 

tata  Sicilia  (Verr.  iv.  51),  throughout  Sicily  (in  the  whole  of  Sicily).    So  — 

tota  Tarracina  (De  Or.  ii.  240),  in  all  Tarracina  (cf.  c.  2.  Rem.). 


§  2  59-] 


SPECIAL    USES  OF  TIME  AND  PLACE, 


213 


3.    Freely  in  poetry  :  as,  — 

litore  curvo  (y^n.  iii.  16),  on  the  winding  shore. 

antro  seclusa  relinquit  (id.  iii.  446),  she  leaves  them  shut  up  in  the  cave. 

Epiro,  Hesperia  (id.  iii.  503),  in  Epirus,  in  Hesperia. 

g.    The  way  by  which  is  expressed  by  the  ablative  without  a  prep- 
osition :  as,  — 

via  breviore  equites  praemisT  (Fam.  x.  9),  I  sent  forward  the  cavalry  by 

a  shorter  road. 
Aegaeo  marl  traiecit  (Liv.  xxxvii.  i^),he  crossed  by  way  of  the  ^gean  Sea. 
provehimur  pelago  {Mn.  iii.  506),  we  sail  forth  over  the  sea. 


5.     Special   Uses  of  Time  and  Place. 

259.    The  following  special  uses  must  be  observed  :  — 

a.  Many  expressions  have  in  Latin  the  construction  of  time  when, 
where  in  English  the  main  idea  is  rather  oi  place :  as, — 

pugna  Cannensi  {or  apud  Cannas),  in  the  fight  at  Cannce. 
ludTs  Romanis,  at  the  Roman  games. 
omnibus  Gallicis  bellis,  in  all  the  Gallic  wars. 

b.  In  many  idiomatic  expressions  of  time,  the  accusative  with  ad, 
in,  or  sub  is  used.     Such  are  the  following  :  — 

supplicatio  decreta  est  in  Kalendas  lanuarias,  a  thanksgiving  was  voted 

for  the  zst  of  fanuary. 
convenerunt  ad  diem,  they  assembled  at  the  [appointed]  day. 
ad  vesperum,  till  evening ;  sub  vesperum,  towards  evening. 
sub  idem  tempus,  about  the  same  time. 
sub  noctem,  at  night-fall. 

c.  Time  during  which  or  within  which  may  be  expressed  by  the 
ablative  of  a  noun  in  the  singular,  with  an  ordinal  numeral  :  as,  — 

quintd  die,  within  [just]  four  days  (lit.,  on  the  fifth  day).  [The  Romans 
counted  both  ends,  see  §  376.  </.] 

regnat  iam  sextum  annum,  he  has  reigned  going  on  six  years  (he  is  reign- 
ing now  the  sixth  year). 

But  also,  —  regnavit  iam  sex  annos,  he  has  already  reigned  for  six  years. 

d.  Difference  of  time  before  or  after  anything  is  variously  ex- 
pressed :  as,  — 

post  (ante)  tres  annos,  post  tertium  annum,  tres  post  annos,  tertium  post 
annum,  tribus  post  annis,  tertio  post  anno  (§  250),  three  years  after. 

tribus  annis  (terti5  anno)  post  exsilium  (postquam  eiectus  est,)  three 
years  after  his  exile. 


1 


214 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES. 


[§260. 


§261.] 


USE   OF  PREPOSITIONS. 


215 


his  tribus  proximTs  annis,  within  the  last  three  years. 

paucls  annis,  a  few  years  hence. 

abhinc  annos  tres  (tribus  annis),  ante  hos  tres  annos,  three  years  ago 

tnennium  est  cum  (tres  anni  sunt  cum),  //  is  three  years  since. 

octavo  mense  quam  (see  §  262.  note  2),  the  eighth  month  after. 

e.  In  Dates  the  phrase  ante  diem  (a.  d)  with  an  ordinal,  or  the 
ordinal  alone,  is  followed  by  an  accusative,  like  a  preposition  ;  and 
the  phrase  itself  may  also  be  governed  by  a  preposition. 

The  year  is  expressed  by  the  names  of  the  consuls  in  the  ablative 
absolute,  often  without  a  conjunction  (§  255.  d)  :  as,  — 

is  dies  erat  a.  d.  quintum  Kalendas  Aprilis  L.  Pisone  A.  Gabinio  consu- 
libus  (B.  G.  i.  6),  that  day  was  the  ^th  before  the  calends  of  April 
(March  28),  in  the  consulship  of  Piso  and  Gabinius. 
in  a.  d.  V.  Kal.  Nov.   (Cat.  i.  7),  to  the  jth  day  before  the  calends  of 

November  (Oct.  28). 
XV.  Kal.  Sextilis,  the  j^th  day  before  the  calends  of  August  (July  18). 
[Full  form  :  quinto  decimo  die  ante  Kalendas.] 

/   For  AT,  meaning  near  (not  /«),  see  §  258.  c.  note  i. 

g.  When  motion  to  a  place  is  implied  in  English,  though  not  ex- 
pressed, the  accusative  with  or  without  a  preposition  must  be  used  in 
Latin  :  as,  — 

coniurati  in  curiam  convenerunt,  the  conspirators  met  in  the  Senate-house 

(came  together  into  the  Senate-house), 
concilium  domum  suam  convocavit,  he  called  a  council  at  his  crwn  house. 

h.  When  two  or  more  names  of  place  follow  a  verb  of  motion, 
each  must  be  under  its  own  construction.     Thus, 

quadridu5  qu5  haec  gesta  sunt  res  ad  Chrysogonum  in  castra  L.  Sullae 
Volaterras  defertur  (Rose.  Am.  20),  within  four  days  after  this  was 
done,  the  matter  was  reported  TO  Chrysogonus  in  Sulla's  camp  at 
Volaterrce. 

VII.     USE  OF  PREPOSITIONS. 

260.    Some  Prepositions  are  used  with  the  Accusative, 
some  with  the  Ablative,  and  a  few  with  both. 

a.  Verbs  of  placing,  though  implying  motion,  take  the  construc- 
tion of  the  place  in  which. 

Such  are  :  pono  and  its  compounds  (except  impono),  loco,  col- 
loco,  statiio,  constituo,  etc. 


statuitur  eques  Romanus  in  Aproni  convivio  (Verr.  iii.  62),  a  Roman 

knight  is  brought  itiio  a  banquet  of  Apronius. 
si  in  uno  Pompeio  omnia  pdneretis  (Man.  59),  if  you  made  everything 

depend  on  Pompey  alone. 

b.  Position  is  frequently  expressed  by  the  Ablative  with  ab  (rarely 
ex),  properly  mesinmg from:  as, — 

a  tergo,  in  the  rear. 

a  sinistra,  on  the  left  hand.     [Cf.  hinc,  on  this  side.] 

magna  ex  parte,  in  a  great  degree  (from,  i.e.  in,  a  great  part). 

c.  Super  in  the  sense  of  concerning  takes  the  Ablative  ;  in  all  other 
senses  it  takes  the  Accusative  :  as,  — 

hac  super  re  (Cic),  concerning  this  thing. 

sed  hac  re  super  nimis  (Att.  x.  8,  \o), but  more  than  enough  on  that  point. 

super  culmina  tecti  (iEn.  ii.  695),  above  the  house-top. 

super  lateres   coria  inducuntur  (B.  C.  ii  10),  hides  are  drawn  over  the 

bricks. 
super  Numidiam  (Jug.  19),  beyond  Numidia. 
super  terrae  tumulum  (Legg.  ii.  66),  on  the  mound  of  earth. 
Note.  — The  ablative  is  used  in  poetry  with  super  in  other  senses: 

as  — 

ligna  super  foco  large  reponens  (Hor.  Od.  i.  9.  ^.piling  logs  generously 

on  the  fire. 
nocte  super  media  (^n.  ix.  61),  after  midnight. 

d.  Subter   takes   the   Accusative,  except   sometimes    in    poetry. 

Thus,  — 

subter  togam  (Liv.),  under  his  mantle.     But  — 
subter  litore  (Catull.),  below  the  shore. 

e.  Tenus  (which  follows  its  noun)  regularly  takes  the  Ablative,  but 

sometimes  the  Genitive  (§  223.  e).     Thus,  — 

Tauro  tenus  (Deiot.  36),  as  far  as  Taurus. 
capulo  tenus  {Mn.  ii.  553),  up  to  the  hilt. 
Corcyrae  tenus  (Liv.  xxvi.  24),  as  far  as  Corcyra. 

261.  Many  words  may  be  construed  either  as  Preposi- 
tions or  as  Adverbs  :  thus,  — 

a.  The  adverbs  pridie,  postridie,  propius,  proxime,i  usque  —  also 
(less  frequently)  the  adjectives  propior  and  proximus  —  may  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  Accusative  (cf .  §§  207.  b,  234.  <?) :  as,  — 

1  Cf .  prope,  §  1 52.  a. 


2l6 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES, 


[§  261. 

pndie  Nonas  lunias  (Cic),  the  day  Before  the  Nones  of  June  (June  4) 

ipsepropior  montem  suos  collocat  (Jue  40)  h.  .Jn      '    ^''""^^^• 
/^^  ^///  ^^  "^-  49;.  >*^  J/a/z^w  /5/j  zw^«  nearer 

proxime  Pompeium  sedebam  fAtt   i    xa\    /  ..*        ^  .     r, 

proximus  Pompeium  sedebam.]  ^^^F^y-     \yt. 

pars  Insulae  quae  est  propius  solis  occasum  (B  G  iv   .S^   /A.  ^     .    ^.. 
island ^huh  .  nearer  the  ^est  (sunse"  ^'        ^'     '-^'"^ 

termmos  usque  Libyae  (Just.),  /^  the  bounds  of  Libya. 
NoTE.-Pridie  and  postridie  take  also  the  Genitive  i%  22.  .  nn..    ^ 

live  with  ab.     Usque  IS  commonly  followed  by  ad.     Thus,- 
propius  Tiber!  (Nep.),  nearer  the  Tiber 
propius  ab  urbe  (Plin.),  nearer  the  city. 
usque  ad  mare,  to  the  sea. 

use  ,  and  palam  as  a  preposition  is  comparatively  late.     Thus,  - 
procul  a  m^ri,  far  from  the  sea. 
nobiscum  simul,  at  the  same  time  with  ourselves. 

clam  patris  (id.),  without  his  father's  knowledge. 
clam  vobis  (B.  C.  ii.  32),  without  your  inowledge. 

So'esS^T  °"^"  ""■■"  ^-^^'^  °"^-'  "--g  -  adverb. 
I.  Ante  and  post  in  relations  of  time :   as,  — 

prtribuf  H-K  ^":"^''  '^'^""^  ^^^^•>'  '^  ^^^^^  -^"-^^  ''^^^  etc. 
post  tnbus  diebus,  three  days  after  (cf.  §  259.  d). 


§§  262,  263.] 


USE   OF  PREPOSITIONS. 


217 


2.  Adversus,  contra,  circiter,  prope  :  as,  — 

adversus  resistere,  to  hold  out  in  opposition. 
Aeolus  haec  contrS,  thus  AloIus  in  reply. 

3.  In  general  those  ending  in  -a:  as, — 

forte  f uit  iuxta  tumulus,  there  happened  to  be  a  mound  close  by. 

262.  Some  prepositions  or  adverbs  which  imply  Com- 
parison are  followed,  like  comparatives,  by  quam,  either 
attached  to  them  or  separated  by  several  words,  or  even 
clauses. 

neque  ante  dimisit  eum  quam  fidem  dedit  (Liv.  xxxix.  10),  nor  did  he  let 

him  go  until  he  gave  a  pledge. 
post  diem  tertium  quam  dixerat  (Mil.  44),  the  third  day  after  he  said  it. 

Note  i.  —  Such  words  are  ante,  prius,  post,  pridie,  postridie;  also 
magis  and  prae  in  compounds  :  as,  — 

Cat5  ipse  iam  servire  quam  pugnare  mavult  (Att.  vii.  15),  Cato  himself 
by  this  time  would  rather  be  a  slave  than  fight. 

Note  2.  —  The  ablative  of  time  (§  256)  is  sometimes  followed  by  quam 
in  the  same  way :  as,  — 

octavo  mense  quam  (Liv.  xxi.  15),  within  eight  months  after,  etc. 

263.  For  a  or  ab  with  the  Ablative  of  Agent,  see 
§  246. 

Note.  —  The  following  prepositions  sometimes  follow  their  nouns  :  ad, 
citra,  circa,  contra,  de,  e  (ex),  inter,  iuxta,  penes,  propter,  ultra,  tenus 
(regularly),  and  occasionally  others  :  as, — 

[usus]  quem  penes  arbitrium  est  et  ius  et  n5rma  loquendT  (Hor.  A.  P. 
72),  custom  y  under  whose  control  is  the  choice ,  right,  and  rule  of  speech. 

cuius  a  me  corpus  est  crematum,  quod  contra  decuit  ab  illo  meum  (C.  M. 
84),  whose  body  I  burned  [on  the  funeral  pile],  while  on  the  contrary 
(lit.  contrary  to  which)  mine  should  have  been  burned  by  him. 


2l8 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB. 


[§  264. 


2.  Subjunctive  :   < 


3.  SYNTAX   OF  THE  VERB. 

/.     MOODS  AND    TENSES. 

The  proper  verbal  constructions  may  be  thus  classified :  — 
I.  Indicative:  Direct  Assertion  or  Question  (§  264). 

a.  Independent :    /  ^^^^'    Exhortation,    Command, 

\         Question  (§  265.  a). 

1.  Purpose  (with  ut,  ne)  (§  317). 

2.  Result  (with  ut,  ut  non)  (§319). 

3.  Characteristic  (Relative  Clause) 
(§  320). 

4.  Time  (with  cum)  (§  325). 
r  Future  (less  vivid)  (§ 

5.  Condi-  I  307.  by  c). 
tions :  1  Contrary   to    Fact  (§ 

I         308). 

6.  Intermediate     (Indirect     Dis- 
course) (§  341). 

7.  Indirect   Questions    or    Com- 
mands (§§  334,  339). 

1.  Direct  Commands  (often  subjunctive)  (§  269). 

2.  Statutes,  Laws,  and  Wills  (§  269.  d). 

3.  Prohibitions  (early  or  poetic  use)  (§  269.  note). 

a.  Subject  of  esse  and  Impersonal  verbs  (§  270). 


b.  Dependent :      < 


3.  Imperative 


4.  Infinitive 


Objective 
Constructions 


Idiomatic 
Uses  : 


1 .  Complementary  Infinitive(§27 1 ). 

2.  Indirect  Discourse  (with  subject- 
accusative)  (§  272). 

1^1.  Purpose  (poetic  or  Greek  use) 

I  (§  273)- 

J  2.  Exclamation    (with    subject-ac- 
cusative) (§  274). 
^3.  Historical  Infinitive  (§  275). 


MOODS. 

I.   The  Indicative. 

264.  The  Indicative  is  the  mood  of  direct  assertions 
or  questions  when  there  is  no  modification  of  the  verbal 
idea  except  that  of  time. 


§  265.] 


MOODS. 


219 


a.  The  Tenses  of  the  Indicative  generally  denote  time,  zs  presenty 
pasty  or  future  y  with  reference  to  the  speaker  (§§  276  ff.). 

b.  The  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  where  the  English  idiom 
would  suggest  the  Subjunctive  :  as,  — 

longum  est,  it  would  be  tedious  [if,  etc.]. 
satius  erat,  it  would  have  been  better  [if,  etc.]. 
persequi  possum,  I  might  follow  up  [in  detail]. 

c.  The  Future  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Imperative  (§  269./"). 

d.  The  Indicative  is  used  in  some  kinds  of  conditions  (§§  306, 308). 

II.   The  Subjunctive. 

265.  The  Subjunctive  in  general  expresses  the  verbal 
idea  with  some  modification  ^  such  as  is  expressed  in  Eng- 
lish by  auxiliaries,  by  the  infinitive,  or  by  the  rare  subjunc- 
tive (§  112.  b). 

The  uses  of  the  subjunctive  are  independeyit  or  dependent. 

a.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  independently  to  express  — 

(i)   An   Exhortatipn,  Concession,  or   Command  {Hortatory ^ 
§  266). 

(2)  A  Wish  {Optative,  §  267). 

(3)  A   Question  of  Doubt   or  Deliberation    {Deliberative^ 

§  268). 

b.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  dependent  clauses  to  express — 

(i)  Purpose  (/^2««/,  §  317). 

(2)  Result  (C^«j^a///W,  §  319). 

(3)  Characteristic  (§  320). 

(4)  Time  {Temporal,  §  325). 

(5)  Indirect  Question  (§  334). 

(6)  Condition  :  future  or  contrary  to  fact  (§§  307.  b,  c,  308). 

c.  The  subjunctive  is  also  used  with  Particles  of  Comparison 
(§  312),  and  in  subordinate  clauses  in  the  Indirect  Discourse  (§  336). 

1  These  modifications  are  of  various  kinds,  each  of  which  had  its  own 
special  development.  The  subjunctive  in  Latin  has  also  many  idiomatic 
uses  (see  clauses  of  Result  and  Time),  where  the  English  does  not  modify 
the  verbal  idea  at  all,  but  expresses  it  directly  ;  but  in  these  cases  the 
Latin  merely  takes  a  different  view  of  the  action,  and  has  developed  its 
construction  differently  from  the  English. 


220 


SYNTAX  OF   THE  VERB. 


[§  266. 


tt 


§  267.] 


OPTATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 


221 


I.    Hortatory   Subjunctive. 

266.  (Rule  6%.)  The  Hortatory  Subjunctive  is  used 
to  express  an  exhortation^  a  comrnandy  a  concession,  or  a 
condition. 

hos  latrones  interficiamus  (B.  G.  vii.  38),  let  us  kill  these  robbers. 
caveaut  intemperantiam,  meminerint  verecundiae    (Off.  i.  122),  let  them 
shun  excess  and  cherish  modesty. 

Note  I;  —  The  simple  subjunctive  of  exhortation  and  command  takes 
the  present  tense,  less  commonly  the  perfect.  The  Perfect  represents  an 
action  as  completed  in  future  time,  but  in  most  cases  is  equivalent  to  the 
Present.  Other  tenses  are  used  in  some  varieties  of  this  construction  (see 
Cy  note,  and  e). 

Remark.  —  The  negative  particle  with  the  hortatory  subjunctive  is  ne. 

a.  The  Second  Person  is  used  only  of  an  indejinite  subject,  except 
in  prohibition,  in  early  Latin,  and  in  poetry  (cf.  §  269.  b).     Thus,  — 

iniurias  fortunae,  quas  ferre  nequeas,  def ugiendo  relinquas  (Tusc.  v.  118), 

the  wrongs  of  fortune,  which  you  cannot  bear,  leave  behind  by  flight. 
ezoriare  aliquis  ultor  (yEn.  iv.  625),  rise,  some  avenger. 
ne  conferas  culpam  in  me  (Ter.  Eun.  388),  don't  lay  the  blame  on  me. 

b.  In  Prohibitions  addressed  to  a  definite  person,  the  perfect  is 
more  common  than  the  present  (cf.  §  269.  a)  :  as,  — 

hoc  facito  :  hoc  ne  feceris  (Div.  ii.  127),  thou  shall  do  this;  thou  shall  not 

do  that. 
tu  ne  quaesieris  (Hon),  do  not  inquire. 
nee  mihi  illud  dixeris  (Fin.  i.  25),  and  do  not  say  that  to  me. 

c.  The  hortatory  subjunctive  may  express  a  Concession,  some- 
times with  ut,  ne,  quamvis,  quamlibet,  or  similar  words  (cf.  §  313.  <z)  : 
as,  — 

fuerit  alils  :  tibi  quando  esse  coepit  (Verr.  IL  i,  37),  suppose  he  was  [so] 

to  others,  when  did  he  begin  to  be  to  you  ? 
at   rationem  Plato  nullam  afferret  (Tusc.  i.  49),  though  Plato  adduced  no 

reasons. 
nemo  is  unquamfuit  :  ne  fuerit  (Or.  loi),  there  never  was  such  a  one  [you 

will  say]  :  granted  (let  there  not  have  been). 
quamvis  scelerati  illi  fuissent  (De  Or.  i.  230),  however  guilty  they  might 

have  been. 


Note.  — In  this  use  the  Present  refers  to  future  or  indefinite  time,  the 
Imperfect  io  present  ox  past  \Sm^  (the  concession  being  impliedly  untrue), 
the  Perfect  to  past  or  completed  future  time,  the  Pluperfect  to  completed 
action  in  past  time  (the  concession  being  usually  untrue). 

d.  The  hortatory  subjunctive  may  denote  a  Proviso  or  Con- 
dition (see  §§  310.  b,  314). 

e.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  of  the  hortatory  subjunctive 
denote  an  unfulfilled  obligation  in  past  time:  as,— 

moreretur,  inquies  (Rab.  Post.  28),  he  should  have  died,  you  will  say. 
potius  diceret  (Off.  iii.  88).  he  should  rather  have  said. 
ne  poposcisses  (Att.  ii.  i,  3),>'^«  should  not  have  asked. 

2.     Optative  Subjunctive. 

267.  (Rule  69.)  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  express 
a  Wish.  The  present  tense  denotes  the  wish  as  possiblcy 
the  imperfect  as  unaccomplished  in  present  time,  the  plu- 
perfect as  unaccomplished  in  past  time.     Thus,  — 

ita  vivam  (Att.  v.  15),  so  may  I  live  (as  true  as  I  live). 

ne  vivam  si  scio  (id.  iv.  i(5,  8),  /  wish  I  may  not  live  if  I  know. 

di  te  perduint  (Deiot.  21),  the  gods  confound  thee  ! 

valeant,  valeant,  cives  mei ;  valeant,  sint  incolumes  (Mil.  93), /ar^^// 

[he  says],  my  fellow-citizens  ;  may  they  be  secure  from  harm. 
di  facerent  sine  patre  forem  (Ov.    Met.  viu.  72),  would  that  the  gods 

allowed  me  to  be  without  a  father  (but  they  do  not)! 
Remark.  —  The  negative  particle  with  the  optative  subjunctive  is  ne. 

a.  The  Perfect  in  this  use  is  antiquated  :  as,  — 

male  di  tibi  faxint  (Plant.  Cure.  131),  may  the  gods  do  thee  a  mischief 
quod  5men  di  averterint  (Phil.  xii.  14,  in  a  religious  formula),  and  may 
the  gods  avert  this  omen. 

b.  The  Optative  Subjunctive  is  often  preceded  by  the  particles  uti 
(ut),  utinam,  0  si  :  as,  — 

ut  pereat  positum  robigine  telum  (Hor.  Sat.  ii.  i,  43).  '««>'  ^^^  weapon 

unused  perish  with  rust. 
falsus  utinam  vates  sim  (Liv.  xxi.  10),  I  wish  I  may  be  a  false  prophet. 
utinam  P.  Clodius  viveret  (Mil.  103),  would  that  Clodius  were  now  alive. 
5  si  angulus  iUe  accedat  (Hor.  Sat.  U.  6.  8),  oh  !  if  that  corner  might  only 

be  added. 


222 


SYNTAX  OF   THE  VERB. 


[§§  268,  269. 


Note  I. -The  subjunctive  with  uti,  etc.,  was  originally  deliberative, 
meaning  how  may  /,  etc.  (§  268).  The  subjunctive  with  6  si  {poetical)  is  a 
protasis  (§312.  note)  ;  si  alone  is  sometimes  used  to  express  a  wish  in  the 
same  way :  as,  — 

si  nunc  se  nobis  ille  aureus  ramus  ostendat  (^n.  vi.  187).  //  now  that 
golden  branch  would  only  show  itself  to  us  ! 

c,  Velim  and  veUem.  and  their  compounds,  with  a  subjunctive  or 
infinitive,  are  often  equivalent  to  an  optative  subjunctive  :  as,  — 
de  Menedemo  vellem  verum  fuisset,  de  regina  velim  verum  sit  (Att.  xv 
4,  4),  about  Menedemus  I  wish  it  had  been  true  ;  about  the  queen  I  hot>e 
tt  may  be. 

nSlto.accidisset  tempus  (Fam.  iU.  10,  2),  /wish  the  time  never  had  come. 


3-    Deliberative  Subjunctive. 

268.  (Rule  70.)  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  questions 
implying  (i)  doubt,  indignation,  or  (2)  an  impossibility  of 
the  thing  being  done  :  as,  — 

quid  hoc  homine  facias  ?  quod  supplicium  dignum  libldinl  eius  invenias 
( Verr.  11.  40),  what  are  you  to  do  with  this  man  ?  what  fit  penalty  can 
you  devise  for  his  wantonness  ? 

an  ego  non  venirem  (Phil.  ii.  3),  ^hat,  should  /  not  have  come  ? 

mihi  umquam  bonorum  praesidium  defuturum  putarem  (Mil.  94),  could 
Ithtnk  that  the  defence  of  good  men  would  ever  fail  me  ^ 

quis  enim  celaverit  ignem  (Ov.  Her.  xv.  7),  who  could  conceal  the  flame  ? 

Remark.  -This  use  is  apparently  derived  from  the  Hortatory  Subiunc- 

rKv^u'V^"^"""''  =  ^^"^°^"'  ^^"^"^*^^'  ^"^^?  i^iusdo-what?     Once 
estabhshed,  it  was  readily  tran.sferred  to  the  past  :  quid  faciam  ?  what  am  / 

todo?  quidfacerem?  what  v^  ks  I  to  do  ?     Questions  implying  impossibility, 
however,  cannot  be  distinguished  from  Apodosis. 

Note. -The  Deliberative  Subjunctive  is  sometimes  called  Dubitative. 

III.   The  Imperative. 

269.    The  Imperative  is  used  in  Commands  and  En- 
treaties :  as,  — 

consulite  vobis,  prospicite  patriae,  conservate  vos  (Cat.  iv.  3),  have  a  care 

for  yourselves,  guard  the  country,  preserve  yourselves 
die  Marce  TullT  sententiam,  Marcus  Tullius,  state  your  opinion 


§  269.] 


DELIBERA  TIVE   SUBfUNCTIVE. 


223 


Note.  —  In  Negative  Commands  {prohibitions)  the  Present  Imperative 
with  ne  is  used  by  early  writers  and  the  poets  :  as,  — 

ne  time  (Plant.  Cure.  520),  don't  be  afraid. 

nimium  ne  crede  colori  (Eel.  ii.  17),  trust  not  too  much  to  complexion. 

equo  ne  credite  {N.vi.  ii.  48),  trust  not  the  horse. 

a.  (Rule  71.)  Prohibition  is  regularly  expressed  in 
classic  prose  :  — 

1.  By  ne  with  the  second  person  of  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  ;  as,  — 
ne  territus  fueris  (Tac.  H.  i.  16),  douH  be  alarmed. 

2.  By  noli  with  the  infinitive  :  as,  — 

noli  putare  (Fam.  xiv.  2),  do  not  suppose  (be  unwilling  to  suppose). 

Note.  —  The  poets  frequently  use  instead  of  noli  other  words  of  similar 
meaning  (cf.  §  273.  c)  :  as, — 

parcepias  scelerare  maniis  (^n.  iii.  ^^2),  forbear  to  defile  your  pious  hands. 

3.  By  cave  with  or  without  ne  (colloquially  fac  ne)  with  the  Pres- 
ent or  Perfect  Subjunctive  1  (§  266.  b)  :  as,  — 

cave  putes  (Att.  vii.  20),  don't  think. 

cave  dixeris,  don't  say  so.  , 

fac  ne  quid  aliud  ciires  (Fam.  xvi.  w),  see  that  you  attend  to  nothing  else. 

Note.  —  Other  negatives  sometimes  take  the  place  of  ne  :  as, — 

non  dubitaveris  (Sen.  Q.  N.  i.  3,  3),jf'^«  must  not  doubt. 
nihil  ignoveris  (Mur.  65),  grant  no  pardon  (pardon  nothing). 

b.  General  Prohibitions  addressed  to  no  definite  person  are  regu- 
larly expressed  by  the  Present  Subjunctive  with  ne  (cf.  c,  below)  : 
as,  — 

denique  isto  bono  utare  dum  adsit :  cum  absit  ne  requiras  (C.  M.  33), 
in  short,  use  this  good  while  present ;  when  wanting,  do  not  regret  it. 

Note.  —  The  poets  and  early  writers  sometimes  use  the  Present  Sub- 
junctive with  ne  in  prohibitions  not  general :  as,  — 

molestus  ne  sis  (Plant.  Most.  771),  don't  be  troublesome. 

ne  sis  patruus  mihi  (Hor.  Sat.  ii.  3.  88),  don't  be  a  [harsh]  uncle  to  me. 

c.  The  third  person  of  the  Imperative  is  antiquated  or  poetic:  — 

iusta  imperia  sunto,  eisque  cives  modeste  parento  (Leg.  iii.  6),  let  there 
be  lawful  authorities,  and  let  the  citizens  strictly  obey  them. 

1  In  prohibitions  the  Subjunctive  with  ne  is  hortatory  ;  that  with  cave  is 
an  object  clause  (originally  hortatory,  cf.  §  33i-/-  Rem.). 


224 


SYNTAX  OF   THE  VERB, 


[§269. 


Note.  — In  prose  the  Hortatory  Subjunctive  is  commonly  used  instead 
(§  266)  :  as,  — 

haec  igitur  lex  in  amicitia  sanciatur  (Lael.  40),  let  this  law  be  laid  down 
in  case  of  friendship. 

d.  The  Future  Imperative  is  used  in  commands,  etc.,  where  there 
is  a  distinct  reference  to  future  time  :  viz., 

I.  In  connection  with  a  condition  precedent  (as  2.  future,  a  future 
perfect,  or  an  imperative).     Thus,  — 

Phyllida   mitte   mihl,  meus   est   natalis,  loJla  ;  cum  faciam    vitula  pro 
frugibus  ipse  venito  (Eel.  iii.  76),  send  Phyllis  to  me,  it  is  my  birth- 
day, lollas  ;  when  I  sacrifice  a  heifer  for  the  harvest,  come  yourself 
die  quibus  in  terrls,  etc.,  et  Phyllida  solus  habetd  (id.  iii.  107),  tell  in 
what  lands,  etc.,  and  have  Phyllis  for  yourself 

2.  With  adverbs  or  other  expressions  of  Time  :  as,  — 

eras  petito,  dabitur  (PI.  Merc.  770),  ask  to-morrow  [and]  it  shall  be  given, 

3.  In  general  directions,  as  Precepts,  Statutes,  and  Wills  :  as,— 
cum  valetudini  consulueris,  turn  consulito  navigation!  (Fam  xvi.  4),  when 

you  have  attended  to  your  health,  then  look  to  your  sailing. 
Borea  flante,  ne  arato,  semen  ne  iacito  (Plin.  H.  N.  xviii.  tj),  when  the 

north  wind  blows,  plough  not,  nor  sow  your  seed. 
e.  The  verbs  scio,  memini,  and  habeo  (in  the  sense  gf  consider), 
regularly  use  the  Future  Imperative  instead  of  the  Present :  as,— 
filiolo  me  auctum  scito  (Att.  i.  2),  learn  that  lam  blessed  with  a  little  boy. 
sic  habeto,  mi  Tiro  (Fam.  xvi.  4),  so  understand  it,  my  good  Tiro. 
de  palla  memento,  amabo  (PI.  Asin.  939),  remember,  dear,  about  the  gown. 
/.  The  Future  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Imperative  ; 
and  quin  {why  not?)  with  the  Present  Indicative  may  have  the  force 
of  a  command  :  as,  — 

8i  quid  accident  novT,  facies  ut  sciam  (Fam.  xiv.  ?>),  you  will  let  me  know 
if  anything  new  happens. 

quin  accipis  (Ter.  Heaut.  832) .?  here,  take  it  (why  not  take  it .?). 

g.  Instead  of  the  simple  Imperative,  cura,  fac,  or  velim,  followed 
by  the  Subjunctive  with  or  without  ut  is  often  used,  especially  in  col- 
loquial language  :  as,  — 

cura  ut  Romae  sis  (Att.  i.  2),  take  care  to  be  at  Rome. 

fac  ut  valetudinem  cures  (Fam.  xiv.  i-j),  see  that  you  take  care  of  your 

health.    [Cf.  rus  e5.    fac,  amabo  (Ter.  Eun.  533),  /  ^m  going  into  the 

country.     Do,  please.'] 
domi  adsitis  facite  (id.  506),  be  at  home,  do. 


§  270.] 


INFINITIVE   AS  SUBfECT. 


225 


IV.     The  Infinitive. 

I.     Infinitive    as    Subject,  etc. 

270.    (Rule   58.)    The    Infinitive,    with    or  without    a* 
subject-accusative,  may  be  used  with  est  and  similar  verbs 
(i)  as  the  Subject,  (2)  in  Apposition  with  the  subject,  or 
(3)  as  a  Predicate  Nominative.     Thus,  — 

1.  Subject :  as, — 

dolere  malum  est  (Fin.  v.  84),  to  suffer  pain  is  an  evil. 

pulchrum  est  benefacere  rei  publicae  (Sail.  Cat.  3),  it  is  a  noble  thing  to 

benefit  the  state. 
motos  praestat  componere  fluctus  (^En.  i.  135),  it  is  better  to  calm  the 

troubled  waves. 

2.  In  Apposition  with  the  Subject :  as, — 

proinde  quasi  iniuriam  facere  id  demum  esset  imperio  uti  (Sail.  Cat.  12), 
Just  as  if  this, — to  commit  injustice,  —  were  to  use  power.  [Here 
facere  is  in  apposition  with  id.] 

3.  Predicate  Nominative  :  as,  — 

id  est  convenienter  naturaie  vivere  (Fin.  iv.  41),  that  is  to  live  in  con- 
formity with  nature.     [Cf.  uti  in  the  last  example.] 
Note  i.  —  An  infinitive  may  also  be  used  as  Direct  Object  in  connec- 
tion  with   a   Predicate   Accusative,   or   as  Appositive   with  such   Direct 
Object :  as,  — 

istuc  ipsum  non  esse  cum  fueris  miserrimum  puto  (Tusc.  i.  12),  for  I 

think  this  very  thing  most  wretched,  not  to  be  when  one  has  been. 
Note  2.  —  An  Appositive  or  Predicate  noun  used  with  an  infinitive  in 
any  of  these  constructions  is  put  in  the  Accusative,  whether  the  infinitive 
has  a  subject  expressed  or  not.     Thus,  — 

non  esse  cupidum  pecunia  (Parad.  51),  to  be  free  from  desires  (not  to  be 

desirous)  is  money  in  hand, 
a.  The  infinitive  as  subject  is  not  common  except  with  est  and 
similar  verbs,  but  is  occasionally  used  with  verbs  apparently  more 
active  in  meaning  :  as,  — 

quos  omnis  eadem  cupere,  eadem  odisse,  eadem  metuere  in  iinum  coegit 
(Jug.  31,  10),  all  of  whom  the  fact  of  desiring,  hating,  and  fearing  the 
same  things  has  united  into  one. 
ingenuas  didicisse  fideliter   artes  emoUit    mores  (Ov.  ex  P.  ii.   9.  48), 

faithfully  to  have  learned  liberal  arts  softens  the  manners. 
posse  loqui  eripitur  (Ov.  M.  ii.  483),  the  power  of  speech  is  taken  away. 


226 


SYNTAX  OF   THE   VERB. 


[§271. 


b.  The  infinitive  is  used  with  many  impersonal  verbs  and  expres- 
sions, partly  as  subject  and  partly  as  complementary  infinitive  (§  271). 

Such  are  libet,  licet,  oportet,  decet,  placet,  vigum  est,  pudet, 
piget,  necesse  est,  opus  est,  etc. 

id  primum  in  poetis  cemi  licet  (Da  Or.  iii.  27),  this  may  be  seen  first  in 
poets. 

reperiebat  quid  dici  opus  esset  (Brut.  215),  he  found  what  needed  to  be 
said. 

neque  me  vixisse  paenitet  (C.  M.  84),  I  do  not  feel  sorry  to  have  lived. 

Note  i.  —  These  are  generally  not  real  cases  of  the  infinitive  used  as 
subject,  but  they  approach  that  construction. 

c.  Rarely  the  infinitive  is  used  exactly  like  the  accusative  of  a 
noun  :  as,  — 

beate  vivere  alii  in  alio,  vos  in  voluptate  ponitis  (Fin.  ii.  86),  a  happy  life 
different  [philosophers]  base  on  different  things,  you  on  pleasure. 

2.    Complementary  Infinitive. 

271.  (Rule  59.)  Verbs  which  imply  another  action  of 
the  same  subject  to  complete  their  meaning  take  the  in- 
finitive without  a  subject-accusative  :  as,  — 

hoc  queo  dicere  (Cat.  Maj.  32),  this  I  can  say. 
mitto  quaerere  (Rose.  Am.  53),  /  omit  to  ask. 

vereor  laudare  praesentem  (N.  D.  i.  58),  I  fear  to  praise  a  man  to  his  face 
(one  who  is  present). 

Such  are  verbs  denoting  to  be  able,  dare,  undertake,  remember, 
forget,  be  accustomed,  begin,  continue,  cease^  hesitate,  learn,  know  how, 
fear,  and  the  like. 

Note.  — The  mark  of  this  construction  is  that  no  Subject  of  these  in- 
finitives is  in  general  admissible  or  conceivable. 

a.  Many  verbs  take  either  a  subjunctive  clause  or  a  complementary 
infinitive,  without  difference  of  meaning.  Such  are  verbs  signifying 
willingness,  necessity, propriety,  resolve,  command, prohibition,  eff^ort, 
and  the  like  (cf.  §331):  as,  — 

student  excellere  (Off.  i.  116),  they  aim  to  excel. 

cum  statuissem  scribere  ad  te  aliquid  (Off.  i.  4),  when  /  had  resolved  to  '^ 

address  something  to  you. 
istum  exheredare  in  animo  habebat  (Rose.  Am.  52),  he  had  it  in  mind  to 

deprive  him  of  the  inheritance. 


§272.]      INFINITIVE   WITH  SUBfECT-ACCUSATIVE.  227 

Note  i.  —  With  some  of  these  verbs  an  infinitive  with  subject-accusa- 
tive may  be  used  as  object,  taking  the  place  of  a  complementary  infinitive. 
In  this  use  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  and  that  of  the  main  verb  are  of 
course  the  same.     Thus,  — 

* 

cupio  me  esse  clementem  (Cat.  i.  4)  =  cupio  esse  clemens,  I  desire  to  be 
merciful  (cf.  §  331.  b.  note). 

Note  2.  —  Some  verbs  of  these  classes  never  take  the  subjunctive,  but 
are  identical  in  meaning  with  others  which  do  :  as,  — 

quos  tueri  debent  deserunt  (Off.  i.  28),  they  forsake  those  whom  they  should 

protect. 
non  lubet  fugere  aveo  pugnare  (Att.  ii.  18,  3),  /  have  no  desire  to  run 

away,  I  ^m  anxious  to  fight. 

b.  Some  verbs  of  these  classes  —  iubeo  and  veto  regularly  —  may 
take  (as  object)  the  infinitive  with  a  subject  different  from  that  of  the 
main  verb  (see  §  331.  ^)  :  as,  — 

signa  inferri  iubet  (Liv.  xlii.  59),  he  orders  the  standards  to  be  advanced. 

Pompeius  .  .  .  rem    ad  arma  deduci  studebat    (B.  C.  i.  4),   Pompey  was 
anxious  to  have  matters  come  to  open  war. 

c.  A  Predicate  Noun  ot  Adjective  after  a  complementary  infinitive 
takes  the  case  of  the  subject  of  the  main  verb  :  as,  — 

fierlque  studebam  eius  prudentia  doctior  (Lael.  i),  I  was  eager  to  become 

more  wise  through  his  wisdom. 
scio  quam  soleas  esse  occupatus  (Fam.  xvi.  21,  7),  I  know  how  busy  you 

usually  are  (are  wont  to  be). 

Note.  —  If  the  construction  of  the  main  verb  is  impersonal,  a  predicate 
noun  or  adjective  is  in  the  accusative  (but  for  licet,  etc.,  see  §  272.  a.  2). 
Thus,  — 

peregrin!  officium  est  minime  in  aliena  esse  re  publica  curiosum  (Off.  i. 
125),  it  is  a  stranger* s  duty  to  be  by  no  means  curious  in  a  foreign  state. 


3.     Infinitive  with  Subject-Accusative. 

272.  (Rule  60.)  The  Infinitive,  with  Subject- Accusa- 
tive, is  used  with  verbs  and  other  expressions  of  knowings 
thinkings  tellings  and  perceiving  {Indirect  Discoursey 
§  336)  :   as,— 

dicit  montem  ab  hostibus  teneri  (B.  G.  i.  22),  he  says  that  the  hill  is  held 
by  the  enemy.     [Direct :  mons  ab  hostibus  tenetur.j 


228 


SYNTAX   OF   THE   VERB. 


[§  273- 


Remark.  —  The  Infinitive  Clause  may  be—  i.  the  Direct  Object  of  the 
verb;  as,  Caesarem  adesse  nuntiavit,  he  reported  that  Casar  was  present; 
2.  the  Subject  of  the  same  verb  in  the  passive  :  as,  Caesarem  adesse  nun- 
tiatum  est,  //  was  reported  that  Casar  was  present ;  3.  the  Predicate  Nom- 
inative after  some  such  phrase  as  rumor  est :  as,  rumor  erat  Caesarem  adesse, 
there  was  a  report  that  Casar  was  present. 

a.  I.  With  certain  impersonal  verbs  and  expressions  that  take  the 
infinitive  as  an  apparent  subject  (§  270.  b),  the  personal  subject  of  the 
action  may  be  expressed  — 

(i)    By  a  dative,  depending  on  the  verb  or  verbal  phrase  :  or 

(2)  By  an  accusative  expressed  as  the  subject  of  the  infinitive. 
Thus,  — 

rogant  ut  id  sibi  facere  liceat  (B.  G.  i.  7),  they  ask  that  it  be  allowed  them 
to  do  this. 

exstingui  homini  su5  tempore  optabUe  est  (Cat.  Maj.  85),  //  is  desirable  for 
a  man  to  die  at  the  appointed  time. 

2.    With  Ucet  regularly,  and  other  verbs  occasionally,  a  predicate 

noun  or  adjective  following  the  infinitive  may  be  in  the  dative  :  as,  — 

licuit  esse  otioso  Themistocli  (Tusc.  i.  2^\  Themistodes  might  have  been 

inactive  (it  was  allowed  to  T.  to  be  inactive), 
cur  his  esse  llberos  non  licet  (Flacc.  71),  why  is  it  not  allowed  these  men 
to  be  free  ? 

non  est  stantibus  omnibus  necesse  dicere  (Marc.  33),  it  is  not  necessary 
for  all  to  speak  standing. 

Note.  —  When  the  subject  is  not  expressed,  as  being  indefinite  {one, 
anybody),  a  predicate  noun  or  adjective  must  be  in  the  accusative  (cf.  §  271. 
£.  note) :  as,  — 

vel  pace  vel  bello  clarum  fieri  licet  (Sail.  Cat.  3),  one  can  become  illus- 
trious either  in  peace  or  in  war. 

b.  In  poetr>%  by  a  Greek  idiom,  a  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective  in 
the  indirect  discourse  sometimes  agrees  with  the  subject  of  the  main 
verb  :  as,  — 

sensit  medios  delapsus  in  hostes  (^n.  u.  yj-j\  he  found  himself  fallen 
among  the  foe.     [In  prose  :  se  esse  delapsum.] 

4-     Infinitive  of  Purpose. 

273.  In  a  few  cases  the  Infinitive  retains  its  original 
meaning  of  Purpose. 

a.  The  infinitive  is  used  after  habeo,  do,  ministro,  in  isolated 
passages  instead  of  a  subjunctive  clause  :  as,  — 


§  273] 


INFINITIVE   OF  PURPOSE. 


229 


tantum  habeo  polliceri  (Fam.  i.  5),  so  much  I  have  to  promise.     [Here 

the  more  formal  construction  would  be  quod  pollicear.] 
meridie  bibere  dato  (Cato  R.  R.  89),  give  (to)  drink  at  noonday. 

b.  Paratus,  suetus  and  their  compounds  (used  as  adjectives)  take 
the  infinitive,  like  the  verbs  from  which  they  come  :  as,  — 

currii  succedere  sueti  (.^n.  iii.  541),  accustomed  to  being  harnessed  to  the 

chariot. 
adsuefacti  superaii  (B.  G.  vi.  24),  used  to  being  conquered. 

Note.  —  These  words  more  commonly  in  prose  take  the  gerund  or 
gerundive  construction  (§§  296  ff.)  either  in  the  Dative,  the  Genitive,  or  the 
Accusative  with  ad.     Thus,  — 

alendis  liberis  sueti  (Tac.  Ann.  xiv.  27),  accustomed  to  supporting  children. 
insuetus  navigandl  (B.  G.  v.  6),  unused  to  making  voyages. 
corpora  Insueta  ad  onera  portanda  (B.  C.  i.  78),  bodies  uncucustomed  to 
carry  burdens. 

c.  In  poetry  and"  later  writers  almost  any  verb  may  have  the  infini- 
tive, after  the  analogy  of  verbs  of  more  literal  meaning  that  take  it 
in  prose  :  as,  — 

parce  scelerare  (^tn.  iii.  42),  forbear  to  pollute. 

d.  Many  adjectives  take  the  infinitive  in  poetry  following  a  Greek 
idiom  :  as,  — 

cantari  dignus  (Eel.  v.  54),  worthy  to  be  sung.     [In  prose  :  qui  cantetui.] 

cantare  peritT  (Eel.  x.  32),  skilled  in  song. 

nescia  vinci  pectora  (.'En.  xii.  527),  hearts  not  knowing  how  to  yield. 

e.  The  poets  and  early  writers  often  use  the  infinitive  to  express 
purpose  when  there  is  no  analogy  with  any  prose  construction  :  as,  — 

loricam  donat  habere  \ir5  (itn.  v.  262),  he  gives  the  hero  a  breastplate  to 

wear.     [In  prose  :  habendam.] 
non  ferro  Libycos  populare  Penates  venimus  (yEn.  i.  527),  we  have  not 

come  to  lay  waste  with  the  sword  the  Libyan  homes. 

Note.  —  So  rarely  in  prose  writers  of  the  classic  period. 

f.  For  the  infinitive  used  instead  of  a  substantive  clause  of  purpose, 
see  §  331.  a-g. 

Note.  —  For  tempus  est  abire,  see  §  298.  note. 

g.  Rarely  in  poetry  the  infinitive  is  used  to  express  result:  as, — 

fingit  ecum  tenera  docilem  cervfce  magister  ire  viam,  etc.  (Hor.  Ep.  i 

2.  64),  makes  the  horse  gentle  so  as  to  go,  etc. 
hic  levare  .  .  .  pauperem  laboribus  vocatus  audit  (Hor.  Od.  iL  18.  38), 

h^  when  called,  hears,  so  as  to  relieve,  etc 


230 


SYJVTAX   OF   THE    VERB. 


[§§  274-276. 


5.  Exclamatory   Infinitive. 

274.    The   Infinitive,  with   subject-accusative,  may  be 
used  m  Exclamations  (cf.  §  240.  d)  :  as,  — 

te  in  tantas  aerumnas  propter  me  incidisse  (Fam.  xiv.  i).  a/as  f  that  you 
should  have  fallen  into  such  grief  for  me. 

.     mene  incepto  desistere  victam  (^n.  i.  yj),  ^hat !  I  beaten  desist  from  my 
purpose  ?  -^  -^ 

Note.  -  The  Present  and  the  Perfect  Infinitive  are  used  in  this  con- 
struction with  their  ordinary  distinction  of  time. 

6.  Historical  Infinitive. 

275.  (Rule  61.)  The  Infinitive  is  often  used  for  the 
Imperfect  Indicative  in  narration,  and  takes  a  subject  in 
the  nominative  :  as,  — 

turn  CatUIna  polUceri  novas  tabulas  (Sail.  Cat.  2.),  M«  Catiline  prom- 
ised  abohtun  of  debts  (clean  ledgers). 

ego  instiie  ut  mihi  responderet   (Verr.  ii.  ,88),  /  kept  urging  him  to 
answer  me.  ^         e>    6  *^ 

pars  cedere,  alii  insequi ;  neque  sTgna  neque  ordines  servare  ;  ubi  quemque 
penculum  ceperat,  ibi  resistere  ac  propulsare,  arma,  tela,  equi,  virl 
hostes  atque  cives  permlxtT,  nihil  c5nsili5  neque  imperio  agi  •  fors 
omnia  regere  (Jug.  51),  a  part  g^ve  way,  others  press  on;  they  hold 
neither  to  standards  nor  ranks  ;  where  danger  overtook,  there  each  would 
stand  and  fight;  arms,  weapons,  horses,  men,  foe  and  fHend,  mingled 
in  confuston  ;  nothing  went  by  counsel  or  command;  chance  ruled  all. 

.Jr^'  ~  ^^'!  ^^^^'^^^^-^on  is  not  strictly  historical,  but  rather  descriptive, 
and  IS  never  used  to  state  a  mere  historical  fact. 


TENSES. 

I.     Tenses  of  Incomplete  Action. 

I.     Present  (General  Use). 

276.  The  Present  Tense  denotes  an  action  or  state  (i) 
as  nozv  taking  place  or  existing;  and  so  (2)  as  ifuomplete 
m  present  time,  or  (3)  as  indefinite,  referring  to  no  par- 
ticular time,  but  denoting  a  general  truth.     Thus,  — 


§276.]  PRESENT  AND  HISTORICAL   PRESENT.  23 1 

senatus  haec  inteUegit,  cdnsul  videt,  hie  tamen  vivit  (Cat.  i.  2),  the  Senate 

knows  this,  the  consul  sees  it, yet  this  man  lives.. 
tibi  concedo  meas  sedes  (Div.  i.  104),  /  give  you    my    seat   (an    offer 

which  may  or  may  not  be  accepted), 
obsequium  amlc5s,  Veritas  odium  parit    (Ter.  And.  68),  flattery  gains 

friends,  truth  hatred.     [General  truth.] 

a.  The  Present,  with  expressions  of  duration  of  time,  especially 
iam  diu,  iam  audum,  denotes  an  action  continuing  in  the  present, 
but  begun  in  the  past  (cf.  §  277.  b)  :  as,— 

te  iam  dudum  hortor  (Cat.  i.  12),  I  have  long  urged  you. 

patimur  iam  mult5s  ann5s  (Verr.  v.  126),  we  suffer  now  these  many  years. 
[The  perfect  would  imply,  we  no  longer  suffer.'] 

Note  i.  — In  this  use  the  present  is  commonly  to  be  rendered  by  the 
perfect  in  English. 

Note  2.  —  SimUarly  the  Present  Imperative  with  iam  dudum  indicates 
that  the  action  commanded  ought  to  have  been  done  or  was  wished  for  long 
ago  (cf.  the  Perfect  Imperative  in  Greek)  :  as,— 

iam  dudum  sumite  poenas  (.En.  ii.  lo^),  exact  the  penalty  long  delayed. 

b.  The  Present  sometimes  denotes  an  action  attempted  or  begun 
in  present  time,  but  never  compkted  {Conative  Present,  cf.  §  277.  c)  : 

as,  — 

iam  iamque  manu  tenet  (^n.  ii.  530),  and  now,  even  now,  he  attempts 

to  grasp  him. 
densos  fertur  in  hostis  (id.  51 1),  he  starts  to  rush  into  the  thickest  of  the 

foe. 
decerns  qulnquaginta  dierum  supplicationes  (PhU.  xiv.  29),  I  move  for  fifty 
days"  thanksgiving     [Cf.  senatus  decrevit,  the  senate  ordained.] 

c.  The  Present,  especially  in  colloquial  language  and  poetr>',  is 
often  used  for  the  Future  :  as,  — 

imusne  sessum  (De  Or.  iu.  17),  shall  we  take  a  seat  (are  we  going  to  sit)  >. 
haud  muto  factum  (Ter.  And.  40).  /  do  not  wish  to  change  it  (I  am  not 

trying  to  change), 
hodie  ux5rem  duels  (id.  321).  are  you  to  be  married  to-day  ? 
si  pereo  hominum  manibus  periisse  iuvabit  (^n.  iii.  606),  if  I  perish,  it 

will  be  pleasant  to  perish  at  the  hands  of  men  (cf.  §  307.  a.  note). 


».    Historical  Present. 

d.  The  Present  in  lively  narrative  is  often  used  for  the  Historical 
Perfect  {^Historical  Present)  :  as,  — 


232 


SYNTAX  OF  THE    VERB. 


[§  277- 


f  §  277.] 


IMPERFECT. 


233 


affertur  nuntius  Syracusas  ;  curritur  ad  praetorium  ;  Cleomenes,  quam- 
quam  nox  erat,  tamen  in  publico  esse  non  audet ;  includit  se  domi 
(Verr.  v.  92),  the  news  is  brought  to  Syracuse;  they  run  to  head- 
quarters; Cleomenes,  though  it  was  night,  does  not  venture  to  be 
abroad  ;  he  shuts  himself  up  at  home. 

Note.  -  This  usage,  common  in  all  languages,  comes  from  imagining 
past  events  as  going  on  before  our  eyes  {repraesentdtio). 

3-    Present  with  dum. 

e.  Dum,  while,  regularly  takes  the  Present  Indicative  in  reference 
to  past  events. 

In    translating,   the   English   Imperfect  must  generally  be  used 
Thus,  — 

hoc  dum  narrat,  forte  audlvi  (Ter.  Heaut.  272),  /  happened  to  hear  this 
while  she  was  telling  it. 

Note.  -  A  past  tense  with  dum  (usually  so  long  as)  makes  the  time  em- 
phatic by  contrast.  But  a  few  irregular  cases  of  dum  with  a  past  tense 
occur  where  no  contrast  is  intended.     Thus,— 

nee  enim  dum  eram  vobiscum  animum  meum  videbatis  (Cat.  Mai  79) 
whtle  I  was  with  you,  you  could  n^t  see  my  soul.  [Here  the  time  when 
he  was  alive  is  contrasted  with  that  after  his  death.] 

coorta  est  pugna,  par  dum  constabant  ordines  (Liv.  xxii.  47),  a  conflict 
began,  well  matched  as  long  as  the  ranks  stood  firm. 

But-dum  unum  adscendere  gradum  conatus  est,  venit  in  perlculum 
(Mur.  55),  while  he  attempted  to  climb  one  step  [in  rank]  he  fell  into 
danger. 

/.  The  present  is  regularly  used  in  quoting  writers  whose  works 
are  extant :  as,  — 

Epiciirus  vero  ea  dicit  (Tusc.  ii.  17),  but  Epicurus  says  such  things. 

4.    Imperfect. 

277.    The  Imperfect  denotes  an   action  or  a  state  as 
continued  or  repeated  in  past  time  :  as, 

Socrates  ita  censebat  itaque  disseruit  (Tusc.  i.  72),  Socrates  thought  so 
(habitually),  and  so  he  spoke  (then). 

iamque  rubescebat  Aurora  (^n.  iii.  521),  and  nowthedawn  was  blushing 
c.Z7^'~^^^  Imperfect  is  a  descriptive  tense  and  denotes  an  action  con- 
ceived ^  in  progress  or  a  state  of  things  as  actually  observed  Hence  in 
many  verbs  it  does  not  differ  in  meaning  from  the  Perfect.     Thus  rex  erat 


and  rex  fuit  may  often  be  used  indifferently ;  but  the  former  describes  the 
condition  while  the  latter  only  states  it.  The  English  is  less  exact  in  dis- 
tinguishing these  two  modes  of  statement.  Hence  the  Latin  Imperfect  is 
often  translated  by  the  English  Preterite.     Thus,  — 

AeduT  graviter  ferebant,  neque  legatos  ad  Caesarem  mittere  audebant 
(B.  G.  V.  6),  the  yEdui  were  displeased  and  did  not  dare,  etc.     [Here 
the  Imperfects  describe  the  state  of  things.]     But  — 
id  tulit  factum  graviter  Indutiomarus  (id.  v.  4),  Indutiomarus  was  dis- 
pleased, etc.     [Here  the  Perfect  merely  states  the  fact.] 
aedificia  vicosque  habebant  (id.  iv.  4),  they  had  buildings  and  villages. 

Remark.  —  The  Imperfect  represents  a  present  tense  transferred  to 
past  time.  Hence  all  the  meanings  which  the  present  has  derived  from  the 
continuance  of  the  action  belong  also  to  the  imperfect  in  reference  to  past 
time  (see  details  below). 

a.  The  Imperfect  is  used  in  descriptions :  as, — 

erant  omnino  itinera  duo  .  .  .  mons  altissimus  impendebat  (B.  G.  i.  6), 
there  were  in  all  two  ways  .  .  .  a  very  high  mountain  overhung. 

b.  With  iam  diu,  iam  dudum,  and  other  expressions  of  duration 
of  time,  the  Imperfect  denotes  an  action  continuing  in  the  past  but 
begun  at  some  previous  time  (cf.  §  1 15.  ^z.  2):  as,  — 

iam  dudum  flebam  (Ov.  M.  iii.  656),  /  had  been  weeping  for  a  long  time. 
copias  quas  diu  comparabant  (Fam.  xi.  13.  5),  the  forces  which  they  had 

long  been  getting  ready. 
Note.  —  In  this  construction  the  Imperfect  is  rendered  by  the  English 
Pluperfect.     Compare  the  Present  in  similar  phrases  (§  276.  a). 

c.  The  Imperfect  sometimes  denotes  an  action  as  begun  (^Inceptive 
Imperfect),  or  as  attempted  or  only  intended  {Conative  Imperfect) 
(cf.  §  276.  b):  as, — 

in  exsilium  eiciebam  quern  iam  ingressum  esse  in  bellum  videbam  (Cat. 

ii.  14),  was  I  sending  {i.e.  trying  to  send)  into  exile  one  who  I  saw  had 

already  gone  into  war  ? 
hunc  igitur  diem  sibi  proponens  Milo,  cruentis  manibus  ad  ilia  augusta 

centuriarum  auspicia  veniebat  (Mil.  43),  was  Milo  coming  {i.e.  was  it 

likely  that  he  would  come),  etc.  ? 
iamque  arva  tenebant  ultima  (^En.  vi.  477),  and  now  they  were  just  getting 

to  the  farthest  fields. 

d.  The  Imperfect  is  sometimes  used  to  express  a  surprise  at  the 
present  discovery  of  a  fact  already  existing  :  as,  — 

O  tu  quoque  aderas  (Ter.  Ph.  858),  oh  I  you  are  here  too. 


234 


SYNTAX  OF   THE   VERB. 


[§§  278,  279. 


i 


e.    The   Imperfect  is   often   used   in   dialogue  where  we  should 
expect  the  Perfect  :  as,  — 

ad  amicum  Calliclem  quoi  rem  aibat  mandasse  hie  suam  (Plaut.  Trin. 
956),  to  his  friend  Callicles,  to  whom,  he  said,  he  had  intrusted  his 
property. 

Note.  —  So  also,  in  conversation,  the  imperfect  of  verbs  of  saying  (cf . 
as  I  was  a-saying) :  as,  — 

at  medici  quoque,  ita  enim  dicebas,  saepe  falluntur  (N.  D.  iii.  15),  >r 
that  was  what  you  were  saying  Just  now. 

f.  For  the  Imperfect  in  apodosis  contrary  to  fact,  see  §  308.  b. 

g.  The  Imperfect  with  negative  words  often  has  the  force  of  the 
English  auxiliary  could  ox  would:  as, — 

itaque  (Damocles)  nee  pulchros  illos  ministratores  adspiciebat  (Tusc.  v. 

62),  therefore  he  could  not  look  upon  those  beautiful  slaves.     [In  this 

case  did  not  would  not  express  the  idea  of  continued  prevention  of 

enjoyment  by  the  overhanging  sword.] 
nee  enim  dum  eram  vobiscum  animum  meum  videbatis  (Cat.  Maj.  79) 

for,  you  know,  while  I  was  with  you,  you  could  not  see  my  soul.   [Here 

the  Perfect  would  refer  only  to  one  moment.'] 

5.    Future. 

278.  The  Future  denotes  an  action  or  state  that  will 
occur  hereafter. 

a.  The  Future  sometimes  has  the  force  of  an  Imperative  (see 
§  269./). 

b.  The  Future  is  often  required  in  a  subordinate  clause  in  Latin 
where  in  English  futurity  is  sufficiently  shown  by  the  main  clause  : 
as, — 

cum  aderit  videbit,  when  he  is  there  he  will  see  (cf.  §  325.  c). 
sanabimur  si  volemus  (Tusc.  iii.  13),  we  shall  be  healed  if  we  wish. 

II.   The  Tenses  of  Completed  Action. 

X.    Perfect. 

279.  The  Perfect  denotes  an  action  either  as  now  com- 
pleted {Perfect  Definite),  or  as  having  taken  place  at  some 
undefined  point  of  past  time  (Historical  or  Aoristic  Per- 
fect),    Thus,  — 


§  279-] 


PERFECT. 


235 


(i)  ut  ego  feci,  qui  Graecas  litteras  senex  didici  (Cat.  Maj.  26),  as  I  have 
done,  who  have  learned  Greek  in  my  old  age. 

(2)  tantum  bellum  extrema  hieme  apparavit,  ineunte  vere  suscepit,  media 
aestate  confecit  (Man.  35),  so  great  a  war  he  made  ready  for  at  the 
end  of  winter,  undertook  in  early  spring,  and  finished  by  midsummer. 

Note.  —  The  distinction  between  these  two  uses  of  the  perfect,  though 
almost  if  not  wholly  lost  to  the  minds  of  the  Romans,  must  be  noticed,  on 
account  of  the  marked  distinction  in  English  (see  also  §  115.  <:). 

a.  The  perfect  is  sometimes  used  emphatically  to  denote  that  a 
thing  or  condition  of  things  that  once  existed  no  longer  exists  :  as, — 

fuit  ista  quondam  in  hac  re  publica  virtus  (Cat.  i.  3),  there  was  once  such 

virtue  in  this  commonwealth. 
habuit,  non  habet  (Tusc.  i.  87),  he  had,  he  has  no  longer. 
fuimus  Troes,  fuit  Ilium  (iEn.  ii.  325),  we  have  ceased  to  be  Trojans,  Troy 

is  no  more. 

b.  The  Indefinite  Present,  denoting  a  customary  action  or  a  general 
truth  (§  276),  often  has  the  Perfect  in  a  subordinate  clause  referring 
to  time  antecedent  to  that  of  the  main  clause  :  as,  — 

qui  in  compedibus  corporis  semper  fuerunt,  etiam  cum  soluti  sunt  tardius 
ingrediuntur  (Tusc.  i.  75),  they  who  have  ahvays  been  in  the  fetters  of 
the  body,  even  when  released  move  more  slowly. 

c.  The  perfect  is  sometimes  used  of  2.  general  truth,  especially 
with  negatives  {Gnomic  Perfect ) :  as,  — 

non  aeris  acervus  et  auri  deduxit  corpore  febres  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  2.  47),  the 
pile  of  brass  and  gold  removes  not  fever  from,  the  frame. 

Note.  —  The  gnomic  perfect  strictly  refers  to  past  time ;  but  its  use 
implies  that  something  which  never  did  happen  in  any  known  case,  never 
does  happen,  and  never  will  (cf.  the  English  '•'•Faint  heart  never  won  fair 
lady'''')',  or  without  a  negative  that  what  has  once  happened  will  always 
happen  under  similar  circumstances. 

d.  The  Perfect  is  often  used  in  expressions  containing  or  implying 
a  negation,  where  in  affirmation  the  Imperfect  would  be  preferred  : 
as,  — 

dicebat  melius  quam  scripsit  Hortensius  (Or.  132),  Hortensius  spoke  better 
than  he  wrote.     [Here  the  negative  is  implied  in  the  comparison.] 

e.  The  completed  tenses  of  some  verbs  are  equivalent  to  the 
incomplete  tenses  of  verbs  of  kindred  meaning. 


236 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB. 


[§§  280,  281. 


§§  282-285.] 


SEQUENCE   OF   TENSES. 


237 


Such  are  the  preterit! ve  verbs  odi,  /  hate;  memini,  /  remember; 
novi  /  know;  consuevi,  /  am  accustomed}  with  others  sometimes 
used  preteritively,  as  venerat  (=  aderat,  he  was  at  hand,  etc.)  (see  § 
143.  note).     Thus, — 

qui  dies  aestus  maximos  efficere  consuevit  (B.  G.  iv.  29),  which  day 
generally  makes  the  highest  tides  (is  accustomed  to  make). 

cuius  splendor  obsoievit  (Quinc.  68),  whose  splendor  is  now  all  faded 
(has  become  old). 

Remark.  —  Many  other  verbs  are  occasionally  so  used  :  as,  — 
dum  oculos  certamen  averterat  (Liv.  xxxii.  24),  while  the  contest  had 
turned  their  eyes  (kept  them  turned).     [Here  averterat  =  tenebat.] 

2.    Pluperfect. 

280.  The  Pluperfect  is  used  (i)  to  denote  an  action  or 
state  completed  in  past  time  ;  or  (2)  sometimes  to  denote 
an  action  in  indefinite  time,  but  prior  to  some  past  time 
referred  to  :  as,  — 

(i)  loci  natura  erat  haec,  quem  locum  nostrl  castris  delegerant  (B.  G.  ii.  18), 
this  was  the  nature  of  the  ground  our  men  had  chosen  for  a  camp. 
Viridovbc  summam  imperi  tenebat  earum  omnium  civitatum  quae  defe- 
cerant  (id.  iii.  17),  Viridoz'ix  held  the  chief  command  of  all  those  tribes 
which  had  revolted. 

(2)  neque  vero  cum  aHquid  mandaverat  confectum  putabat  (Cat.  iii.  16),  bttt 
when  he  had  given  a  thing  in  charge  he  did  not  look  on  it  as  done. 
quae  si  quando  adepta  est  id  quod  ei  fuerat  concupitum,  tum  fert  alacri- 
tatem  (Tusc.  iv.  35),  ////  (desire)  ever  has  gained  what  it  had  [previ- 
ously] desired,  then  it  produces  Joy. 

3     Future  Perfect. 

281.    The   Future  Perfect  denotes  an  action  as  com 
pleted  in  the  future  :  as,  —    • 

ut  sementem  feceris,  ita  metes  (De  Or.  ii.  261),  as  you  sow  (shall  have 

sown),  so  shall  you  reap. 
carmina  tum  melius  cum  venerit  ipse  canemus  (Eel.  ix.  67),  then  shall 

we  sing  our  songs  better,  when  he  himself  has  come. 
ego  certe  meum  officium  praestitero  (B.  G.  iv.  25),  /  at  least  shall  have 

done  my  duty  {i.e.  when  the  time  comes  to  reckon  up  the  matter,  I 

shall  be  found  to  have  done  it,  whatever  the  event). 

^  Cf.  detestor,  reminiscor,  scio,  soleo.  ^ 


Remark  —The  Future  Perfect  is  used  with  much  greater  exactness  in 
Latin  than  in  English,  and  may  even  be  used  instead  of  the  Future,  from 
the  fondness  of  the  Latins  for  representing  an  action  as  completed  :  as,- 

quid  inventum  sit  paulo  post  videro  (Acad.  ii.  76).  what  has  been  found 
out  I  will  see  presently. 

IIL    Epistolary  Tenses. 

282.  In  Letters,  the  Perfect  Historical  or  the  Imper- 
fect may  be  used  for  the  present,  and  the  PUiperfect  for 
any  past  tense,  as  if  the  letter  were  dated  at  the  time  it 
is  supposed  to  be  received:  as, — 

neque  tamen,  cum  haec  scribebam,  eram  nescius  quantis  oneribus  pre- 
merere  (Fam.  v.  12.  2),.  nor  while  I  write  this  am  I  ignorant  under 
what  burdens  you  are  weighed  down. 

IV.   Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive. 

283.  The  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  Independent 
Clauses  denote  time  in  relation  to  the  time  of  the  speaker. 
The  Present  always  refers  to  future  (or  indefinite)  time, 
the  Imperfect  to  either  past  or  present,  the  Perfect  to 
either /7///^r^  ox  past,  the  Pluperfect  always  \.o  past. 

284.  In  Dependent  Clauses  the  tenses  of  the  Subjunc- 
tive were  habitually  used  in  certain  fixed  connections  de- 
termined by  the  time  of  the  main  verb  and  the  time  of 
the  dependent  verb  together. 

Sequence  of  Tenses. 

285.  The  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  Dependent 
clauses  follow  special  rules  for  the  sequence  of  tenses. 

With  reference  to  these  rules  all  tenses  when  used  in 
Independent  clauses  are  divided  into  two  classes. -/nw/^ry 
and  secondary. 


238 


SYNTAX  OF  THE   VERB. 


[§  2?>(>. 


I.  Primary.  The /r/V/mry  tenses  include  all  forms  that  express 
present  or  fixture  time.  These  are  the  Present,  Future,  and  Future 
Perfect  Indicative,  the  Present  and  Perfect  Subjunctive,  and  the 
Present  and  Future  Imperative. 

Note. -The  Perfect  Definite  is  sometimes  treated  as  primary,  but  see 
§  257.  a.  "' 

2.  Secondary.  The  secondary  tenses  include  all  forms  that 
refer  Xo  past  time.  These  are  the  Imperfect,  Perfect,  and  Pluperfect 
Indicative,  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive,  and  the  His- 
torical Infinitive. 

Note  -To  these  may  be  added  certain  forms  less  commonly  used  in 
Independent  Clauses.     Such  are  (i)  Primary:    Present  Infinitiv-e  in  Ex- 
clamations ;  (2)  Secondary:  Perfect  Infinitive  in  Exclamations  (see  S  287 
a.  note).  j»    "z- 

286.  (Rule  62.)  In  complex  sentences  a  Primary  tense 
in  the  main  clause  is  followed  by  the  Present  or  Perfect 
in  the  dependent  clause,  and  a  Secondary  tense  by  the 
Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  :  as, 

scribit  ut  nos  moneat,  he  writes  to  warn  us. 

scribet  ut  nos  moneat,  he  will  write  to  warn  us. 

scribe  (scribito)  ut  nos  moneas,  write  that  you  may  warn  us. 

scripsit  ut  nos  moneret,  he  wrote  to  warn  us. 

scribit  quasi  oblTtus  sit,  he  writes  as  if  he  had  forgotten. 

scripsit  quasi  oblltus  esset,  he  wrote  as  if  he  had  forgotten. 

rogo  quid  facturus  sis  /ask  what  you  are  going  to  do. 

NpTE.-This  rule  affects  only  the  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  de- 
pendent clauses.  The  tenses  of  the  other  moods  and  those  of  the  Sub- 
junctive in  independent  constructions  (as  in  apodosis  contrary  to  fact,  S  .08) 
are  not  affected  by  the  sequence  of  tenses.     (But  cf.  §§  ^^S.  note  2,  339. 

Rkmark.-  In  applying  the  rule  for  the  sequence  of  tenses,  observe  (,) 
whether  the  mam  verb  is  (a)  primary  or  (t.)  secondary,  (.)  whether  the  de- 
pendent «rb  .s  to  denote  completed  action  (,>.  past  with  reference  to  the 
mam  verb),  or  mcomplete  (,..  present  or  future  with  reference  to  the  main 
veroj.      1  nen  — 

{a)  If  the  leading  verb  is  primary  the  dependent  verb  must  be  in  the 
Present  rf  it  denotes  incomplete  action,  in  the  Perfect  if  it  denotes  completed 


§  287.] 


SEQUENCE   OF   TENSES. 


239 


{b)  If  the  leading  verb  is  secondary,  the  dependent  verb  must  be  in  the 
Imperfect  if  it  denotes  incomplete  action,  in  the  Pluperfect  if  it  denotes 
completed  action.     Thus,  — 

he  writes  (primary)  to  warn  (incomplete)  us,  scribit  ut  nos  moneat. 

I  ask  (primary)  what  you  were  doing  (now  past),  rogo  quid  feceris. 

Notice  that  the  Future  Perfect  denotes  action  completed  (at  the  time 
referred  to),  and  hence  is  represented  in  the  Subjunctive  by  the  Perfect  or 
Pluperfect.     Thus, — 

I  ask  what  you  will  have  accomplished,  rogo  quid  perfeceris. 

he  asked  what  he  would  have  accomplished,  rogavit  quid  perfecisset. 

287.    In  the  Sequence  of  Tenses  some  special  points 

are  to  be  noted  :  — 

a.  The  Perfect  Indicative  is  ordinarily  a  secondary  tense,  but 
allows  the  primary  sequence  when  the  present  time  is  clearly  in  the 
writer's  mind.     Thus,  — 

ut   satis   esset   praesidi   prSvisum  est  (Cat.  u.  26),  provision  has   been 

made  that  there  should  be  ample  guard.     [Secondary  sequence.] 
adduxi  hominem  in  quo  satisfacere  exteris  nationibus  possetis  (Verr.  i.  2), 

/  have  brought  a  man  in  whose  person  you  can  make  satisfaction  to 

foreign  nations.     [Secondary  sequence.] 
ea  adhibita  doctrina  est  quae  vel  vitiosissimam  naturam  excolere  possit 

(Q.  Fr.  i.  I,  7),  such  instruction  has  been  given  as  can  train  even  the 

faultiest  nature.     [Primary  sequence.] 
Note.  — The  Perfect  Infinitive  in  Exclamations  follows  the  same  rule  : 

j^  

adeon  rem  redisse  patrem  ut  extimescam  (Ter.  Ph.  153),  to  think  that 

things  have  come  to  such  a  pass  that  I  should  dread  my  father. 

b.  After  a  primary  tense  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  is  regularly  used 
to  denote  any  past  action,  and  may  represent  — 

1.  A  Perfect  Definite  :  as, — 

non  dubito  quin  omnes  tui  scripserint  (Fam.  v.  8),  /  do  not  doubt  that  all 
your  friends  have  written.     [Direct  statement :  scripserunt.] 

quare  non  ignoro  quid  accidat  in  ultimis  terris,  cum  audierim  in  Italia 
querelas  civium  (Q.  Fr.  i.  i,  33)'  therefore  I  know  well  what  happens 
at  the  ends  of  the  earth,  when  I  have  heard  in  Italy  the  complaints  of 
citizens.     [In  a  direct  statement,  audivi.] 

2.  A  Perfect  Historical  :  as,  — 

me  autem  hie  laudat  quod  retulerim,  non  quod  patefecerim  (Att.  xii.  21), 
me  he  praises  because  I  brought  the  matter  [before  the  senate],  not 
because  I  brought  it  to  light     [Direct  sUtement :  retulit] 


240 


SYNTAX  OF   THE   VERB. 


[§  287. 


3.  An  Imperfect:  as, — 

SI  forte  ceciderint  turn  intellegitur  quam  fuerint  inopes  amicorum  (Lsel. 
53)'  '/  h  chance  they  fall  (have  fallen),  then  one  can  see  how  poor 
they  were  in  friends.     [Direct  question  :  quam  inopes  erant?] 

qui  status  rerum  fuerit  cum  has  litteras  dedl  scire  poteris  ex  C.  Tidio 
Strabone  (Fam.  xii.  6),  what  the  state  of  affairs  was  when  I  wrote 
this  letter,  you  can  learn  from  Strabo.     [Direct  question  :  qui  erat?] 

Note.  —  Thus  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  may  represent,  not  only  a  Per- 
fect Definite  or  a  Perfect  Historical  of  a  direct  statement  or  question,  but  an 
Imperfect  as  well.  This  comes  from  the  want  of  any  special  tense  of  the 
subjunctive  to  express  continued  action  after  a  primary  tense.  Thus,  miror 
quid  fecerit  may  mean  (i)  I  wonder  what  he  has  done,  (2)  /  wonder  ivhat  he 
did  (hist,  perf.),  or  (3)  /  wonder  what  he  was  doing. 

c.  In  clauses  of  Result,  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  is  very  often  (the 
Present  rarely)  used  after  secondary  tenses  :  as,  — 

Hortensius  ardebat  dicendl  cupiditate  sTc  ut  nullo  unquam  flagrantius 
studium  viderim  (Brut.  302),  Hortensius  was  so  hot  with  desire  of 
speaking  that  I  have  never  seen  a  more  burning  ardor  in  any  man. 

Siciliam  Verres  per  triennium  ita  vexavit  ac  perdidit,  ut  ea  restitui  in 

antlcum  statum  nulla  modo  possit  (Verr.  i.  12),  for  three  years  Verres 

so  racked  and  ruined  Sicily,  that  she  can  in  no  way  be  restored  to  her 

former  state.     [Here  the  Present  describes  a  state  of  things  actually 

existing.] 

Remark.  —  This  construction  emphasizes  the  result ;  the  regular  con- 
struction subordinates  it. 

Note. — There  is  a  special  fondness   for  the  Perfect  Subjunctive   to 
represent  a  Perfect  Indicative.     Thus,  — 

Thorius  erat  ita  non  superstiti5sus  ut  ilia  plurima  in  sua  patria  et  sacri- 
ficia  et  fana  contemneret ;  ita  non  timidus  ad  mortem  ut  in  acie  sit 
ob  rem  publicam  interfectus  (Fin.  ii.  63),  Thorius  was  so  little  super- 
stitious that  he  despised  [contemnebat]  the  many  sacrifices  and  shrines 
in  his  country ;  so  little  timorous  about  death  that  he  was  killed 
[interfectus  est]  in  battle,  in  defence  of  the  State. 

Zeno  nullo  modo  is  erat  qui  nervos  virtutis  incideret  (cf.  §  279.  d)  ;  sed 
contra  qui  omnia  in  una  virtute  poneret  (Acad.  i.  35),  Zeno  was  by  no 
means  one  to  cut  the  sinews  of  virtue  ;  bttt  one,  on  the  contrary,  who 
made  everything  depend  on  virtue  alone,     [incidit  .  .  .  ponebat.] 

d.  A  general  truth   after  a  past  tense  follows  the  sequence  of 
tenses  :  as,  — 


§  287.] 


SEQUENCE    OF   TENSES. 


241 


ex  his  quae  tribuisset  sibi  quam  mutabilis  asset  reputabat  (Q.  C.  ill.  8,  20), 
from  what  she  (Fortune)  had  bestowed  on  him,  he  reflected  how  incon- 
stant she  is.     [Direct :  mutabilis  est.] 
ibi  quantam  vim  ad  stimulandos  animos  Ira  haberet  apparuit  (Liv.  xxxiii. 
37),  here  it  appeared  what  power  anger  has  to  goad  the  mind.     [Direct : 
habet.] 
Note.  —  In  English  the  original  tense  is  more  commonly  kept. 
e.  The  Historical  Present  (§  276.  d)  is  sometimes  felt  as  2. primary, 
sometimes  as  a  secondary  tense.     Accordingly  it  is  followed  by  either 
the  primary  or  the  secondary  sequence,  more  commonly  by  the  sec- 
ondary.    Thus,  — 

rogat  ut  curat  quod  dixisset  (Quinct.  18),  he  asks  him  to  attend  to  the  thing 

he  had  spoken  of. 
castella  communit  quofacilius  prohibere  posset  (B.  G.  i.  8),  he  strengthens 

the  forts  that  he  might  more  easily  keep  them  off. 
Note.—  After  the  historical  present,  cum  temporal  with  the  subjunctive 
must  follow  the  secondary  sequence. 

/.  The  Imperfect  and   Pluperfect  in  conditions  contrary  to  fact 
(§  308)  are  not  affected  by  the  sequence  of  tenses  :  as,  — 

quia  tale  sit,  ut  vel  si  ignSrarent  homines,  etc.  (Fin.  ii.  49),  because  it  is 

such  that  even  if  men  were  ignorant,  etc. 
g.  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  in  present  conditions  contrary  to 
fact  (§  308)  is  regularly  followed  by  the  secondary  sequence  :  as,— 
si  alii  consules  essent,  ad  te  potissimum,  Paulle,  mittaram,  ut  eos  mihi 
quam  amicissimos  radderes  (Fam.  xv.  13),  if  there  were  other  consuls, 
I  should  send  to  you,  Paulus,  in  preference  to  all,  that  you  might  make 
them  as  friendly  to  me  as  possible. 
si  eos  dicares  miser5s  quibus  moriendum  asset,  neminem  exciperes  (Tusc. 
i.  9),  if  you  called  those  wretched  who  must  die,  you  would  except  no 
ont. 
h.  The  Present  is  sometimes  followed  by  a  secondary  sequence, 
seemingly  because  the  writer  is  thinking  of  past  time  {Synesis)  :  as,  — 

sed  tamen  ut  scires  haec  tibi  scribo  (Fam.  xiii.  47).  ^^^  y^*  ^^^^  y^"*  ""^^ 
kncnv,  I  write  thus.  [As  if  he  had  used  the  common  epistolary  im- 
perfect scribebam  (§  282).] 

cuius  praecepti  tanta  vis  est  ut  ea  non  homini  cuipiam  sed  Delphico  deo 
tribueretur  (Leg.  i.  58),  such  is  the  force  of  this  precept,  that  it  was 
ascribed  not  to  any  man,  but  to  the  Delphic  god.  [The  precept  was 
an  old  one.] 


242 


SYNTAX  OF   THE   VERB. 


[§  288. 


§  288.] 


NOUN  AND   ADJECTIVE   FORMS. 


243 


i 


Note.  —  The  rules  for  the  sequence  of  tenses  must  not  be  regarded  as 
inflexible.  They  were  often  disregarded  by  the  Romans  themselves,  either 
from  carelessness  or  purposely  for  one  reason  or  another. 

/.  When  a  clause  depends  upon  one  already  dependent,  the 
sequence  becomes  secondary  as  soon  as  the  time  is  thrown  back  into 
the  past  by  any  form  that  represents  past  time :  as, 

tantum  profecisse  videmur  ut  a  Graecis  ne  verborum  quidem  copia  vince- 
remur  (N.  D.  i.  8),  we  seem  to  have  advanced  so  far  that  even  in 
fulness  of  words  7ve  ARE  not  surpassed  by  the  Greeks. 

But— beate  vixisse  videor  quia  cum  ScTpione  yixerim  (Lael.  15),  / 
seem  to  have  lived  happily  in  that  I  have  lived  with  Scipio  (who  had 
just  died). 

Note.  — For   the   application   of  this  rule   to  Indirect  Discourse,  see 
§  336.  B.  note. 

V.     Tenses  of  the  Infinitive. 

288.  (Rule  63.)  The  Tenses  of  the  Infinitive  denote 
present,  past,  or  future  time,  relatively  to  the  time  of  the 
verb  on  which  they  depend  :  as,  — 

nostros  non  esse  inferiores  intellexit  (B.  G.  ii.  8),  he  ascertained  that  our 

men  were  not  inferior.     [Direct  :  sunt.] 
quam  luno  fertur  terrls  magis  omnibus  coluisse  (^n.  i.  15),  which  Juno 

is  said  to  have  cherished  above  all  lands.     [Direct  :  colebat.] 
sperant  se  maximum  fructum  esse  capturos  (Lael.  79),  they  hope  they  shall 

receive  the  greatest  advantage.     [Direct  :  capiemus.] 

a.  With  past  tenses  of  verbs  of  necessity,  propriety,  2ind  possibility 
(as  potui,  debui,  and  oportuit)  the  Present  infinitive  must  be  ren- 
dered by  the  Perfect  infinitive  in  English  :  as,  — 

scire  potuit  (Milo,  46),  he  might  have  known. 

quividebatur  omnino  mori  non  debuisse  (Arch.  17),  who  seemed  [one 
that]  ought  not  to  have  died  at  all. 

b.  For  the  tenses  of  the  infinitive  in  Indirect  Discourse  see 
§  336.  A. 

c.  Except  in  indirect  discourse,  the  Present  is  the  only  tense  of  the 
infinitive  in  common  use.    It  has  no  distinct  reference  to  time.  Thus,— 

est  adulescentis  maiores  natu  veren"  (Off.  i.  122),  //  is  [the  duty]  of  a 
youth  to  reverence  his  elders. 


d.  With  verbs  of  wishing,  necessity,  and  the  like,^  the  Perfect 
Passive  infinitive  is  often  used  instead  of  the  Present  :  as,  — 

quod  iam  pridem  factum  esse  oportuit  (Cat.  i.  5),  which  ought  to  have 
been  done  long  ago  (cf.  a,  above). 

Remark.  —  In  early  and  late  Latin,  and  in  poetry,  rarely  in  good  prose, 
the  Perfect  Active  infinitive  is  also  used  instead  of  the  Present,  and  even 
with  other  verbs  than  those  of  wishing  and  the  like  :  as,  — 

conunisisse  cavet  (Hor.  A.  P.  168),  he  is  cautious  of  doing. 

e.  With  verbs  of  feeling  the  Perfect  infinitive  is  used,  especially 
by  the  poets,  to  denote  a  completed  action. 

So  also  w^ith  satis  est,  satis  habeo,  melius  est,  contentus  sum, 
and  in  a  itvt  other  cases  where  the  distinction  of  time  is  important. 
Thus,  — 

pudet  me  non  praestitisse  (Fam.  xiv.  3),  /am  ashamed  not  to  have  shown. 
sunt  quos  curriculo  pulverem  Olympicum  collegisse  iuvat  (Hor.  Od.  i. 

I.  3),  there  are  those  who  delight,  etc. 
quiesse  erit  melius  (Li v.  iii.  48),  it  will  be  better  to  have  kept  quiet. 

f.  The  Future  infinitive  is  often  expressed  by  fore  (or  futurum 
esse)  ut  with  the  subjunctive  ;  so  necessarily  in  verbs  which  have 
no  supine  stem  (cf.  §§  302.  Rem.,  332.  ^).     Thus,  — 

spero  fore  ut  contingat  id  nobis  (Tusc.  i.  82),  /  hope  that  will  be  our 
happy  lot. 

II.    NOUN  AND  ADJECTIVE  FORMS. 

The  several  Noun  and  Adjective  forms  associated  wath  the  verb  are 
employed  as  follows  :  — 

'  I.  Attributive  (§  291  and  a). 

2.  Simple  Predicate  (§  291.  b). 

3.  Periphrastic  Perfect  (pass.)  (§  291. R). 

4.  Predicate  of  Circumstance  (§  292). 

5.  Descriptive  (Ind.  Discourse)  (§292.  e). 

1.  Periphrastic  with  esse  (§  293.  a). 

2.  Periphrastic   with  fui  (=  Pluperfect 
Subjunctive)  (§  293.  c). 

1.  As  Descriptive  Adjective  (§  294.  a). 

2.  Periphrastic  with  esse  (§  294.  b). 

3.  Of  Purpose  with  verbs  (§294.  d). 


I.  Participles 


a.  Present  and 
Perfect  : 


r 


b.  Future: 


c.  Gerundive: 


*  Chiefly  void,  nolo,  malo,  oportet,  decet. 


244 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB. 


[§§  289,  290. 


§290.] 


DISTINCTIONS   OF   TENSE. 


245 


Gerund  or 
Gerundive 


3.  Supine 


{:: 


1.  Genitive  as  Objective  Genitive  (§  298). 

2.  Dative,  with  Adjectives,  Nouns,  Verbs  (§  299). 

3.  Accusative,  with  certain  Prepositions  (§  300). 

4.  Ablative,  of  Means,  Comparison,  or  with  Prepositions 

(§301.) 
Former  Supine  (in  -um),with  Verbs  of  Motion  (§  302). 
Latter  Supine  (in  -u),  chiefly  with  Adjectives  (§  303). 

PARTICIPLES. 


289.  The  Participle  expresses  the  action  of  the  verb  in 
the  form  of  an  Adjective  ;  but  has  a  partial  distinction  of 
tense,  and  may  govern  a  case. 

Note.  —  Thus  the  participle  combines  all  the  functions  of  an  adjective 
with  some  of  the  functions  of  a  verb.  As  an  adjective,  it  limits  substan- 
tives, and  agrees  with  them  in  gender,  number,  and  case  (§  186).  As  a 
verb,  it  has  distinctions  of  time  (§  290),  and  often  takes  an  object. 

I.    Distinctions  of  Tense. 

290.  (Rule  64.)  Participles  denote  time  2is present, past, 
or  future  with  respect  to  the  time  of  the  verb  in  their 
clause. 

Thus  the  Present  Participle  represents  the  action  as  in  progress 
at  the  time  indicated  by  the  tense  of  the  verb,  the  Perfect  as  com- 
pleted, and  the  Future  as  still  to  take  place. 

a.  The  Present  Participle  has  several  of  the  special  uses  of  the 
Present  Indicative.     Thus  it  may  denote  — 

1.  An  action  continued  in  the  present  but  begun  in  the  past 
(§  276.  a^  :  as,  — 

quaerenti  mihi  iamdiu  certa  res  nulla  veniebat  in  mentem  (Fam.  iv.  13), 
though  I  had  long  sought,  no  certain  thing  came  to  my  mind. 

2.  Attempted  action  (§  276.  h)  :  as,  — 

C.  Flaminio  restitit  agrum  Picentem  dividenti  (Cat.  Maj.  w),  he  resisted 
Flaminius  7vhen  attempting  to  divide  the  Picene  territory. 

3.  Futurity  (§  276.  c)  :  as,  — 

lens  in  Pompeianum  bene  mane  haec  scrlpsi  (Att.  iv.  9),  /  write  this 
when  about  going  very  early  to  my  place  at  Pompeii. 


b.  The  Perfect  Participle  of  a  few  deponent  verbs  is  used  nearly 
in  the  sense  of  a  Present. 

So,  regularly,  ratus,  solitus,  veritus;  commonly,  fisus,  ausua, 
Becutus,  and  occasionally  others,  especially  in  later  writers.     Thus,  — 

cohortatus  mllites  docuit   (B.  C.  iii.  80),  encouraging  the  men,  he  showed. 
iratus  dlxisti  (Mur.  62),  you  spoke  in  a  passion. 
oblitus  auspiciorum  (Phil.  i.  -^^i),  forgetting  the  auspices. 
insidias  veritus  (B.  G.  ii.  w),  fearing  ambuscade. 

c.  The  Latin  has  no  Present  Participle  in  the  passive.  The  place 
of  such  a  form  is  supplied  usually  by  a  clause  with  dmn  or  cum, 
rarely  by  the  participle  in  -dus :  as,  — 

nuUls  evidentibus  causis  obiere  dum  calceantur  matutino  duo  Caesares 

(Plin.  N.  H.  vii.  iSi),  from  no  obvious  cause  two  Ccesars  died  while 

having  their  shoes  put  on  in  the  morning. 
meque   ista   delectant  cum   Latine  dicuntur   (Acad.  i.  13),  those  things 

please  me  when  they  are  spoken  in  Latin. 
crucibus  adfixi  aut  flammandi  (Tac.  Ann.  xv.  44),  crucified  or  set  on  fire 

(in  flames). 

Note.  —  The  constructions  with  dum  and  cum  are  often  used  when  a 
participle  might  be  employed  :  as,  — 

die,  hospes,  Spartae,  nos  te  hic  vidisse  iacentes,  dum  Sanctis  patriae  legi- 
bus  obsequimur,  tell  it,  stranger,  at  Sparta,  that  you  saw  us  lying  here 
obedient  to  our  country's  sacred  laws.  [Here  dum  obsequimur  is  a 
translation  of  the  Greek  present  participle  iriidbtuvoL.'] 

d.  The  Latin  has  no  Perfect  Participle  in  the  active  voice.  The 
deficiency  is  supplied  — 

1.  In  deponents  by  the  perfect  passive  form  with  its  regular  active 

meaning  :  as,  — 

nam  sTngulas  [naves]  nostri  consectati  expugnaverunt  (B.  G.  iii.  \^,for 
our  men  having  overtaken  them  one  by  one,  captured  them  by  boarding. 

2.  In  other  verbs,  by  the  ablative  absolute  with  a  change  of  voice 
(§  255.  d.  note)  or  by  a  clause  (especially  with  cum  or  dum)  :  as, — 

itaque  convocatis  centurionibus  milites  certi5res  facit  (B.  G.  iii.  5),  and  so, 
having  called  the  centurions  together,  he  informs  the  soldiers  (the  cen- 
turions having  been  called  together). 

cum  venisset  animadvertit  collem  (id.  vii.  44),  having  come  (when  he  had 
come),  he  noticed  a  hill. 

Note. — The  perfect  participle  of  several  deponent  verbs  may  be  either 
active  or  passive  in  meaning  (§  135.  b). 


246 


SYNTAX  OF   THE  VERB. 


[§  291. 


§  292.] 


PREDICATE    USE. 


247 


2.    Adjective  Use. 

291.    The    Present    and    Perfect    participles   are    used 
sometimes  as  attributive,  nearly  like  adjectives  :  as, — 

cum  antlquissimam  sententiam  turn  comprobatam  (Div.  i.  11),  a  view  at 

once  most  ancient  and  well  approved. 
signa  nunquam  fere  ementientia  (id.  15),  signs  hardly  ever  deceitful. 
auspicils  utuntur  coactis  (id.  27),  they  use  forced  auspices. 

a.  Participles  often  become  complete  adjectives,  and  may  be  com- 
pared or  used  as  nouns.     Thus,  — 

quo  mulieri  esset  res  cautior  (Caecin.  ii),  that  the  matter  might  be  more 
secure  for  the  woman. 

in  illis  artibus  praestantissimus  (De  Or.  i.  zx-j),  preeminent  in  those  arts. 

sibi  indulgentes  at  corporl  deservientes  (Leg.  i.  39),  M^  self  indulgent,  and 
slaves  to  the  body  (indulging  themselves  and  serving  the  body). 

male  parta  male  dilabuntur  (Phil.  ii.  65),  ill-got,  ill-spent  (things  ill- 
acquired,  etc.). 

consuetudo  valentis  (De  Or.  ii.  186),  the  habit  of  a  man  in  health. 

b.  Participles  are  often  used  as  Predicate  Adjectives.  As  such 
they  may  be  joined  to  the  subject  by  esse  or  a  copulative  verb  (see 
§§  186.  b,  176.  a)  :  as, — 

Gallia  est  divisa  (B.  G.  i.  i),  Gaul  is  divided. 

locus  qui  nunc  saeptus  est  (Liv.  i.  8),  the  place  which  is  now  enclosed. 

Remark.  —  From  this  predicate  use  arise  the  compound  tenses  of  the 
passive,—  the  participle  of  completed  action  with  the  incomplete  tenses  of 
esse  developing  the  idea  of  past  time :  as  interfectus  est,  he  was  (or  has 
been)  killed,  lit.  he  is  having-been-killed  {i.e.  already  slain). 

In  the  best  writers  (as  Cicero),  the  perfect  participle,  when  used  with 
fui,  etc.,  retains  its  proper  force;  but  in  later  writers  the  two  sets  of  tenses 
(as  amatus  sum  or  fui),  are  often  used  indiscriminately  to  form  the  tenses 
of  the  perfect  system  in  the  passive :  as,  — 

arma  quae  fixa  in  parietibus  fuerant,  hum!  inventa  sunt  (Div.  i.  74),  the 
arms  which  had  been  fastened  on  the  walls  were  found  upon  the 
ground  [Cf.  occupati  sunt  et  fuerunt  (Off.  i.  57),  are  and  have  been 
engaged  The  difference  between  this  and  arma  quae,  etc.,  is,  that 
occupatus  in  this  sense  is  used  only  as  an  adjective.] 


3.    Predicate  U«e. 

292.  The  Present  and  Perfect  participles  are  often  used 
as  a  predicate,  where  in  English  a  phrase  or  clause  would 

be  usual. 

In  this  use  the  participles  express  timey  cause,  occasion, 
condition,  concession,  characteristic  (or  description),  manner, 
means,  attendant  circumstances.     Thus,  — 

volventes  hostllia  cadavera   amicum  reperiebant   (Sail.  Cat.  61),  luhile 

rolling  over  the  corpses  of  the  enemy  they  found  a  friend.     [Time.] 
paululum  commoratus,  signa canere  iubet  (Sail.  Cat.  59,  i),  after  delaying 

a  little  while,  he  orders  to  give  the  signal.     [Time.] 
longius  prosequi  veritus,  ad  Ciceronem  pervenit  (B.  G.  v.  52),  because  he 

feared  to  follow  further,  he  came  to  Cicero.     [Cause.] 
qui  sciret  laxas  dare  iussus  habenas  (.En.  i.  63),  who  might  know  how 

to  give  them  loose  rein  when  bidden.     [Occasion.] 
damnatum  poenam  sequi  oportebat  (B.  G.  i.  4),  if  condemned,  punishment 

must  overtake  him.     [Condition.] 
salutem  insperantibus  reddidisti  (Marc.  21);  you  have  restored  a  safety 

which  we  did  not  hope.     [Concession.] 
Dardanius  caput  ecce  puer  detectus  (^n.  x.  133),  the  Trojan  boy  with 

his  head  uncovered.     [Description.] 
nee  trepides  in  usum  poscentis  aevi  pauca    (Hor.  Od.  ii.   11.  s)^  be  not 

anxious  for  the  needs  of  age  that  demands  little.     [Characteristic] 
incitati  fuga  montes  altissimos  petebant  (B.  C.  iii.  93),  in  headlong  fight 

they  made  for  the  highest  mountains.     [Manner.] 
milites  sublevati  alii  ab  aliis  magnam  partem  itineris  conficerent  (B.  C. 

i.  68),  the  soldiers  helped  up  by  each  other,  etc.    [Means.] 
hoc  laudans,  Pompeius  idem  iuravit  (B.  C.  iii.  87),  approving  this.  Pom- 

pey  took  the  same  oath.     [Attendant  circumstance.] 
aut   sedens  aut  ambulans  disputabam  (Tusc.  i.  7),  /  conducted  the  dis- 
cussion either  sitting  or  walking.     [Circumstance.] 
Remark.  —  These  uses  are  especially  frequent  in  the  ablative  absolute 
(§  255.  d).     A  co-ordinate  clause  is  sometimes  compressed  into  a  perfect 
participle  :  as,  — 

instructos  ordines  in  locum  aecum  deducit  (Sail.  Cat.  59),  he  draws  up 

the  lines,  and  leads  them  to  level  ground. 
ut  hos  transductSs  necaret  (B.  G.  v.  6),  that  he  might  carry  them  over 

and  put  them  to  death. 


248 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB. 


[§  292. 


§  293] 


FUTURE   PARTICIPLE. 


249 


Note,  i.  — A  participle  with  a  negative  often  expresses  the  same  idea 
which  in  English  is  given  by  without  and  a  verbal  noun  :  as,  — 

miserum  est  nihil  proficientem  angi  (N.  D.  iii.  14),  //  is  wretched  to  vex 
oneself  without  effecting  anything. 

Note  2.  —  Acceptum  and  expensum  as  predicates  with  ferre  and  referre 
are  book-keeping  terms  :  as,  — 

quas  pecunias  ferebat  eis  expensas  (Verr.  ii.  170),  what  sums  he  charged 
to  them. 

a.  A  noun  and  a  passive  participle  are  often  so  united  that  the 
participle  and  not  the  noun  contains  the  main  idea  :  ^  as, 

ante  conditam  condendamve  urbem  (Liv.  Pref.),  before  the  city  was  built 
or  building. 

illl  llbertatem  civium  R6man5rum  imminutam  non  tulerunt ;  vos  vitam 
ereptam  neglegetis  (Manil.  11),  they  did  not  endure  the  infringement 
of  the  citizens'  liberty  ;  will  you  disregard  the  destruction  of  their  life  ? 

post  homines  natos  (Brut.  224),  since  the  creation  of  man. 

iam  a  condita  urbe  (Phil.  iii.  9),  even  from  the  founding  of  the  city. 

b.  The  perfect  participle  with  a  noun  in  agreement,  or  in  the  neuter 
as  an  abstract  noun,  is  used  in  the  ablative  with  opus,  need  (cf. 
§  243.  e)  :  as,  — 

opus  facto  est  viatico  (PI.  Trin.  887),  there  is  need  of  laying  in  provision. 
maturato  opus  est  (Liv.  viii.  13),  there  is  need  of  haste. 

c.  The  perfect  participle  with  habeo  (rarely  with  other  verbs)  has 
almost  the  same  meaning  as  a  perfect  active,  but  denotes  the  con- 
tinued effect  of  the  action  of  the  verb  :  2  as, 

fidem  quam  habent  spectatam  iam  et  diu  cognitam  (Div.  C.  1 1),  my  fidelity, 
which  they  have  proved  and  long  known. 

cohortes  in  acie  Ixxx.  constitutas  habebat  (B.  C.  iii.  89),  he  had  eighty  co- 
horts stationed  in  line  of  battle. 

nefarios  duces  captos  iam  et  comprehensos  tenetis  (Cat.  iii.  16),  you 
have  captured  and  hold  in  custody  the  infamous  leaders,  etc. 

d.  A  verb  of  effecting  or  the  like  may  be  used  in  combination  with 
the  perfect  participle  of  a  transitive  verb  to  express  the  action  of  that 
verb  more  forcibly  :  as,  — 

1  Compare  the  participle  in  indirect  discourse  in  Greek  (Goodwin's 
Greek  Grammar,  §  1588) ;  and  the  English,  "  'T  was  at  the  Royal  feast  for 
Persia  won  "  (Dryden),  i.e.  for  the  conquest  of  Persia. 

'^  The  perfect  with  have,  in  modern  languages  of  Latin  stock,  has  grown 
out  of  this  use  of  habeo. 


praefectos  suos  multi  nussos  fecerunt  (Verr.  iii.  134),  many  discharged 

their  officers  (made  dismissed), 
hie  transactum  reddet  omne  (Plant.  Capt.  345),  he  will  get  tt  all  done 

(restore  it  finished). 
Note.  —  Similarly  void  (with  its  compounds)  and  cupio,  with  a  perfect 
participle  without  esse  (cf.  §  288.  d.  note)  :  as,— 

me  excusatum  vol5  (Verr.  IL  i.  103),  /  wish  to  be  excused  (I  want  myself 

excused,  cf.  I  pray  thee  have  me  excused), 
e.  With  verbs  denoting  an  action  of  the  senses  the  present  participle 
in  agreement  with  the  object  is  nearly  equivalent  to  the  infinitive  of 
indirect  discourse  (§  336),  but  expresses  the  action  more  vividly : 

as, — 

ut  eum  nemo  unquam  in  equo  sedentem  viderit  (Verr.  v.  27),  so  that  no 

one  ever  saw  him  sitting  on  a  horse. 

4.    Future  Participle. 

293.  The  Future  Participle  (except  futuras  and  ventums) 
is  rarely  used  in  simple  agreement  with  a  noun,  except  by 
later  writers. 

a.  The  future  participle  is  chiefly  used  with  the  verb  esse  (which 
is  often  omitted)  in  the  active  periphrastic  conjugation  (§  129):  as,— 

morere,  Diagora,  non  enim  in  caelum  adscensurus  es  (Tusc.  i.  iii),  die, 

for  you  are  not  likely  to  rise  to  heaven. 
sperat  adolescens  diu  se  victurum  (Cat.  Maj.  68),  the  young  man  hopes  to 

liw  long  (that  he  shall  live  long). 

b.  By  later  writers  and  the  poets  the  future  participle  is  also  used 
in  simple  agreement  with  a  substantive  to  express :  — 

1 .  Likelihood  or  certainty  :  as,  — 

ausus  est  rem  plus  famae  habituram  (Liv.  ii.  10),  he  dared  a  thing  which 
would  have  more  repute. 

2.  Purpose,  intention,  or  readiness  :  as,  — 

cum  leo  regem  invasurus  incurreret  (Q.  C.  viii.  i,  14),  when  a  lion  rushed 

on  to  attcuk  the  king. 
81  periturus  abis  (iEn.  ii.  675),  if  you  are  going  away  to  perish. 

3.  Apodosis  :  as, — 

dedit  mihi  quantum  maximum  potuit,  daturas  amplius  si  potuisset  (Plin. 
Ep.  iii.  21),  he  gave  me  as  much  as  he  could,  ready  to  give  me  more  if 
he  had  been  able. 


so 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB. 


[§  294. 


c    With  past  tenses  of  esae.  the  future  participle  is  often  equiva- 
lent to  the  pluperfect  subjunctive  (see  §  308.  d). 

5.    Gerundive  (Future  Passive  Participle). 

Note.-  The  participle  in  -dus,  commonly  called  the  Gerundive,  has  two 
distinct  uses :  —  »  « 

(!)  Its  predicate  and  attribute  use  as  participle  or  adjective  (8  ^q.) 
(2)     ts   use  with  the  meaning  of  the  gerund  (§  .96).      This  may  be 
called  Its  gerundive  use.  ^ 

294.   The  Gerundive  when  used  as  a  Participle  or  an 

Adjective  is  always  passive,  denoting  necessity  or  propriety. 

In  this  use  the  following  points  are  to  be  observed  {a-d). 

a.  The  gerundive  is  sometimes  used,  like  the  present  and  perfect 
participles,  in  simple  agreement  with  a  noun  :  as,  — 

fortem  et  conservandum  virum  (Mil.  104),  a  brave  man,  and  worthy  to  be 
preserved. 

b.  The  most  frequent  use  of  this  form  is  with  esse  in  the  second 
(passive)  periphrastic  conjugation  (see  §  129)  :  as,— 

non  agitanda  res  erit  (Verr.  v.  179),  will  not  the  thing  have  to  be  agitated? 

c.  The  neuter  of  the  gerundive  is  occasionally  used  impersonally 
with  an  object.  The  object  is  in  the  case  regularly  governed  by  the 
verb.     Thus,  —  ^ 

via  quam  nobis  ingrediendum  sit  (Cat.  Maj.  6),  the  way  we  have  to  enter. 

Note. -This  use  is  regular  with  verbs  which  take  their  object  in  the 
dative  or  ablative  :  as,  — 

legibus  parendum  est,  the  laws  must  be  obeyed. 

d  With  verbs  signifying  to  give,  deliver,  agree  for,  have,  receive 
undertake,  demand,  a  gerundive  in  agreement  with  the  object  is  used 
to  express  purpose  :  as,  — 

redemptor  qui  columnam  illam  conduxerat  faciendam  (Div.  IL  47)   the 

contractor  who  had  undertaken  to  make  that  column.     [The  reJular 

construction  with  this  class  of  verbs.] 
aedem  Castoris  habuit  tuendam  (Verr.  II.  i,  ,32),  he  had  the  temple  of 

Castor  to  take  care  of. 
naves  atque  onera  dnigenter  adservanda  ciirabat  (id.  v.  146).  he  took  care 

that  the  ships  and  cargoes  should  be  kept. 


§§  295'  296.] 


GERUND  AND   GERUNDIVE. 


251 


GERUND    AND    GERUNDIVE. 

295.  The  Gerund  expresses  an  action  of  the  verb  in 
the  form  of  a  verbal  noun.  As  a  noimJ^t  gerund  is  itself 
governed  by  other  words  ;  as  a  verb  it  may  take  an  object 
in  the  proper  case.     Thus/ —  / 

ars  bene  disserendi  et  vera  ac  falsa  diiudicandi  (De  Or.  ii.  i^y),the  art  of 
discoursing  well,  and  distinguishing  the  true  and  false. 

Remark.  —  A  nominative  of  the  gerund  is  supplied  by  the  infinitive. 
Thus  in  the  example  above,  the  verbal  nouns  discoursing zxi^di  distinguishing 
if  used  in  the  nominative,  would  be  expressed  by  the  infinitives  disserere  and 
diiudicare. 

296.  When  the  Gerund  would  have  an  object  in  the 
accusative,  the  Gerundive  is  generally  used  instead.  The 
gerundive  agrees  with  its  noun,  and  takes  the  case  which 
the  gerund  would  have  had  :  as,  — 

parati5res  ad  omnia  pericula  subeunda  (B.  G.  i.  5),  readier  to  undergo  all 
dangers.  [Here  subeunda  agrees  with  pericula,  which  is  itself  gov- 
erned by  ad.  The  construction  with  the  gerund  would  be,  ad  sub- 
eundom  pericula  ;  ad  governing  the  gerund,  and  the  gerund  governing 
the  accusative  pericula.] 

ezercendae  memoriae  gratia  (Cat.  Maj.  38),/<?r  the  sake  of  training  the 
memory.  [Here  the  gerund  construction  would  be  memoriam  exer- 
cendi  gratia.] 

plerisque  in  rebus  gerendis  tarditas  odiosa  est  (Phil,  vi  7),  in  the  con- 
ducting of  most  business,  sloth  is  odious. 

The  following  examples  illustrate  the  parallel  constructions  of 
gerund  and  gerundive  :  — 

i  urbem  capiendi  1 

Gen.  consilium  \      ,  .  .      ,      >  a  design  of  taking  the  ctty. 

\  urbis  capiendae  )  e>      j  b  .^ 

f  agros  colendo  1 

Dat.  dat  operam  <        .        1     j-    \  he  attends  to  tilling  the  fields. 
^  \  agns  colendis  |  *        -^ 

(  mihi  parendum      1  r  to 

\  pacem  petendam    )       -^  1  to 


Ace,  veniunt  ad 


to  obey  me. 
seek  pecue. 


I  scribendo  epistulas  ) 
Abl.  terit  tern  pus  <       -j^   j-        .      ..    \he  spends  time  in  writing  letters. 


252 


SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB. 


[§§  297,  298. 


§§  299,  300.] 


DATIVE   AND   ACCUSATIVE. 


253 


,1. 


Remark. -In  the  gerundive  construction  the  verbs  utor,  fnior,  etc.,  are 
treated  hke  transitive  verbs  governing  the  accusative,  as  they  do  in  early 

expetuntur  divitiae   ad   perfruendas    voluptates    (Off.  i.  25),  riches  are 
sought  for  the  enjoyment  of  pleasures  (for  enjoying  pleasures). 

297.  (Rule  65.)  The  Gerund  and  the  Gerundive  are 
used,  in  the  oblique  cases,  in  many  of  the  constructions 
of  nouns. 

1.    Genitive. 

298.  The  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive  is 
used  with  nouns  or  adjectives  either  as  subjective  or  ob- 
jective genitive  :  as,  — 

neque  consilil  habendl  neque  arma  capiendi  spatio  dato  (B.  G   iv    14) 
tzme  betng  g^-ven  neither  for  forming  plans   nor  for  taking  arms. 
[Objective.] 

ne  conservandae  quidem  patriae  causa  (Off.  i.  159),  not  even  for  the  sake 
of  saving  the  country.     [Originally  subjective  genitive.] 

Vivendi  finis  est  optimus  (Cat.  Maj.  72),  //  is  the  best  end  of  living.  [Sub- 
jective.] ^     ^ 

Note.  -  In  a  few  phrases  the  Infinitive  is  used  with  nouns  which 
ordmanly  have  the  genitive  of  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive.  Thus  tempus  est 
aoire,  //  ts  time  to  depart. 

Remark.  -  The  genitive  of  the  gerund  or  gerundive  is  used  (especially 
m  early  and  late  Latin)  as  a  predicate  genitive.  When  so  used  ,t  often 
expresses  purpose  :  as,—  »<="  it  oiien 

quae  res  eyertendae  reipublicae  solent  esse  (Verr.  iii.  ,3,),  things  v^hich 
generally  tend  to  the  overthrow  of  the  common-wealth 

s.  arborum  trunci  deiciendi  operis  essent  missae  (B.  G.  iv.  .7)  i„  case 
trunks  of  trees  should  be  sent  do^n  [,vith  the  object]  of  overthrowing 
the  work.     [Pred.  gen.  like  quas  sui  commodi  fecerat  (v.  8).] 

a.  The  genitive  of  the  Gerund  is  occasionally  limited  by  a  noun  or 
pronoun  (especially  sui)  in  the  objective  genitive  instead  of  taking  a 
direct  object :  as,  —  * 

eius  videndl  cupidus  (Ter.  Hec.  372),  eager  to  seeker  (for  a  seeing  of  her) 
re.c.e„d,  txium  iadicum  po.estas  (Verr.  ii.  77),  tie  power  of  ckallenging 

/.4r«y«r<.r.r  (of  the  rejecting  of  three  jurors) 
.ni  colligendl  facultas  (B.  G.  iii.  6).  the  opportunity  to  recover  themselves. 


b.  In  genitive  constructions  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive  are  about 
equally  common. 

c.  The  genitive  of  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive  is  used  with  causa  or 
gratia  to  denote  purpose  (see  §  318). 

Note.  —  This  is  merely  a  special  use  under  the  main  head  of  §  298. 

2.    Dative. 

299.  The  Dative  of  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive  is  used 
after  adjectives^  which  take  the  dative  and  rarely  after 
nouns  (§  234.  a) :   as,  — 

genus  armorum  aptum  tegendis  corporibus  (Li  v.  xxxii.  10),  a  sort  of  armor 

suited  to  the  defence  of  the  body. 
te  sociam  studeo  scribendis  versibus  esse  (Lucr.  i.  25),  I  desire  that  thou 

be  my  partner  in  writing  verses. 

a.  The  dative  is  used  in  a  few  expressions  after  verbs  :  ^  as,  — 

diem  praestitit  operi  faciendo  (Verr.  II.  i,  1 48),  ^^  set  a  day  for  doing  the  work. 
praeesse  agro  colendo  (Rose.  Am.  50),  to  take  charge  of  cultivating  the  land. 
esse  solvendo,  to  be  able  to  pay  (to  be  for  paying). 

Note.  —  This  construction  is  a  remnant  of  a  more  general  use  of  the 
dative  of  the  gerund  and  gerundive. 

b.  The  dative  is  also  used  in  certain  legal  phrases  after  nouns 
meaning  officers.,  offices.,  elections.,  etc.,  to  indicate  the  function  or  scope 
of  the  office,  etc.  :  as,  — 

comitia  consulibus  rogandis  (Div.  i.  33),  elections  for  nominating  consuls. 
triumvir  coloniis  deducundis  (Jug.  42),  a  triumvir  for  planting  colonies. 
triumviri  reipublicae  constituendae  (title  of  the  Triumvirate),  triumvirs 
(a  commission  of  three)  for  settling  the  government. 

3.     Accusative. 

300.  The  Accusative  of  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive  is 
used  after  the  prepositions,  ad,  inter,  circa,  ob  (and  rarely  in 
and  ante) ;  most  frequently  after  ad,  denoting  Purpose 
(cf.  §  318.  b)'  as,— 

1  The  dative  of  the  gerund  and  gerundive  occurs  most  commonly  after 
the  adjectives  accommodatus,  aptus,  ineptus,  bonus,  habilis,  idoneus,  par, 
utilis,  inutilis.  But  the  accusative  with  ad  is  common  with  most  of  these 
(cf.  §  234.  b). 

2  Such  are  praeesse,  operam  dare,  diem  dicere,  locum  capere. 


254 


SYNTAX  OF  THE   VERB. 


[§  301. 


§§  302,  303-] 


SUPINE. 


255 


me  vocas  ad  scribendum  (Or.  34),  j^«  summon  me  to  write. 

vivis  non  ad  deponendam  sed  ad  confirmandam  audaciam  (Cat.  i.  4),  you 
live,  not  to  put  off,  but  to  confirm  your  daring. 

nactus  aditus  ad  ea  conanda  (B.  C.  i.  31),  having  found  means  to  under- 
take these  things. 

inter  agendum  (Ed.  ix.  24),  while  driving. 

Note.  —  The  Accusative  of  the  gerund  with  a  preposition  rarely  takes 
a  direct  object,  the  Ablative  of  the  gerund  very  rarely.  The  Gerundive  is 
used  instead  (§  296). 

4-    Ablative. 

301.  The  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive  is 
used  (I)  to  express  Manner,  Means,  Cause,  etc.;  (2)  after 
Comparatives  ;  (3)  after  the  prepositions  ab,  de,  ex,  in,  and 
(rarely)  pro  and  cum :  as,  — 

(1)  multa  pollicendo  persuadet  (Jug.  46),  he  persuades  by  large  promises. 
Latine  loquendo  cuivis  par  (Brut.  128),  equal  to  any  man  in  speaking  Latin. 
nullls   virtutis   praeceptis   tradendis    (Off.  i.  5),  without  delivering  any 

precepts  of  virtue  (by  delivering  no  precepts). 

his  ipsis   legendis  (Cat.  Maj.  21),  by  reading  these  very  things. 

obscuram  atque  humilem  conciendo  ad  se  multitudinem  (Liv.  i.  8),  call- 
ing to  them  a  mean  and  obscure  multitude. 

(2)  nullum  officium  referenda  gratia  magis  necessarium  est  (Off.  i.  47), 
no  duty  is  more  important  than  repaying  favors. 

(3)  in  re  gerenda  versarl  (Cat.  Maj.  17),  to  be  employed  in  conducting 
affairs. 

Note.  —  The  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive  is  also  very  rarely 
used  depending  on  verbs  and  adjectives  :  as,— 

Appius  non  abstitit  continuando  magistratum   (Liv.  ix.  34),  Appius  did 

not  desist  from  continuing  his  magistracy. 
Remark.  — The  Gerund  is  often  found  co-ordinated  with  nominal  con- 
structions, and  sometimes  even  in  apposition  with  a  noun  :  as,  — 

(i)  in  foro,  in  curia,  in  amicorum  periculis  pulsandis  (Phil.  vii.  7),  in  the 
.  '       forum,  in  the  Senate-house,  in  defending  my  friends  in  jeopardy. 
(2)  ad  res  diversissimas,  parendum  atque  imperandum  (Liv.  xxi.  3),  for 
the  most  widely  different  things,  obeying  and  commanding. 

III.      SUPINE. 

Note.  — The  Supine  is  a  verbal  abstract  of  the  fourth  declension  (§  71. 
a),  having  no  distinction  of  tense  or  person,  and  limited  to  two  uses. 


302.  (Rule  66)  The  Former  Supine  (in  -um)  is  used 
after  verbs  of  motion  to  express  purpose.  It  may  take  an 
object  in  the  proper  case.     Thus,  — 

quid  est,  imusne  sessum .''  etsi  monitum  venimus  te,  non  fiagitatum  (De 
Or.  iii.  17),  how  now,  shall  we  be  seated?  though  we  have  come  to  re- 
mind, not  to  entreat  you. 

venerunt  questum  iniurias  (Liv.  iii.  25),  they  came  to  complain  of  wrongs. 

Remark.  —  The  supine  in  -um  is  especially  common  with  eo  ;  and  with 
the  passive  infinitive  iri  forms  the  future  infinitive  passive.     Thus,  — 

fuere  cives  qui  rempublicam   perditum  irent  (Sail.  Cat.  36),  there  were 

citizens  who  went  about  to  ruin  the  republic  (cf.  §  258.  b.  Rem.), 
non  Grais  servitum  matribus  Ibo  (iEn.  ii.  786),  I  shall  not  go  to  be  a  slave 

to  the  Grecian  dames. 
si  scisset  se  trucidatum  iri  (Div.  ii.  22),  if  he  (Pompey)  had  known  that  he 

was  going  to  be  murdered,     [cf.  §  288./".] 

303.  (Rule  6^)  The  Latter  Supine  (in  -u)  i  is  used 
only  with  a  few  adjectives,  with  the  nouns  fas,  nefas,  and 
opua,  and  rarely  with  verbs,  to  denote  an  action  iji  refer- 
ence to  which  the  quality  is  asserted  ;  as,  — 

0  rem  non  modo  visu  foedam,  sed  etiam  auditu  (Phil.  ii.  63),  a  thing  not 

only  shocking  to  see,  but  even  to  hear  of. 
quaerunt  quid  optimum  factii  sit  (Verr.  IL  i,  68),  they  ask  what  is  best  to  do. 
pudet  dictu  (Agric.  32),  //  is  shame  to  tell. 

Note.  —  The  latter  supine  is  thus  in  appearance  an  ablative  of  specifi- 
cation (§  253),  but  see  §  71.  a. 

Remark.  —  The  supine  in  -u  is  found  especially  with  such  adjectives  as 
indicate  an  effect  on  the  senses  or  the  feelings,  and  those  which  denote 
ease,  difficulty,  and  the  like.  But  with  facilis,  dif&cilis,  iacundus,  ad  with 
the  gerund  is  more  common.     Thus,  — 

nee  visii  facilis  nee  dictu  adfabilis  ulli  (^n.  iii.  621),  he  is  not  pleasant 

for  any  man  to  look  at  or  address. 
difficilis  ad  distinguendum  similitude  (De  Or.  ii.  212),  a  likeness  difficult 

to  distinguish. 
With  all  these  adjectives  the  poets  often  use  the  Infinitive  in  the  same 

sense  :  as,  — 

faciles  aurem  praebere  (Prop.),  indulgent  to  lend  an  ear. 

1  The  only  latter  supines  in  common  use  are  auditu,  dictu,  factu,  inventu, 
mcmoratu,  natu,  visu.  In  classic  use  this  supine  is  found,  in  all,  in  twenty- 
four  verbs.     It  is  never  followed  by  an  object-case. 


in 

I 

1 . 


256 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES. 


[§  304. 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 

..n!!''''^v'^\'^''"u'^'''''"'^^""'""'"  differs  from  other  compound  sen- 

n  somrd    "'  ^'h'  T  ''^"  °'  ^'^  "^^"  ^^^"^^  ^^— ^^)  -  determined 
nsom    degree  by  the  nature  of  the  subordinate  clause  (protasis),  upon 
the  truth  of  which  the  whole  statement  depends. 

Conditional  Sentences  may  be  classified  as  follows  •  _ 

r  a.  More  vivid  (§  307). 
\  ^  Less  vivid  (§  307). 

r  a.  Present  (§  308). 
1  b.  Past  (§  308). 

r  a.  Indefinite  Subject  (§  309.  a). 
\  b.  Repeated  Action  (§  309.  b,  c). 

I  I.  in  clause  of  Fact,  Wish, 


2.  Future  Conditions  : 

3.  Conditions  Contrary 

TO  Fact : 

4-  General  Conditions  : 


"^  a.  Protasis 
Disguised: 


5.  Implied  Conditions  :      . 


Command  (§  310.  b,  c). 
2.  in  Participial  Expression 
(§  310-  a). 

j  I.  Potential  Subjunctive  (§ 
b.  Protasis  I       311.  a). 

Omitted:    1  2.  Subjunctive  of  Modesty 

(§311-^). 


( 


1.    Protasis  and  Apodosis. 

304.  A  complete  conditional  sentence  consists  of  two 
clauses,  the  Protasis  and  the  Apodosis. 

The  clause  containing  the  conditiofi  is  called  the  Prota- 
sis ;  the  clause  containing  the  conclusion  is  called  the 
Apodosis  :  as,  — 

si  qui  exirevolunt  [PROTASIS],  conlve-re  possum  [apodosis]  (Cat  ii  27) 
-       V  any  wish  to  depart,  I  can  keep  my  eyes  shut  '     '    n> 

si  est  in  exsilio  [protasis],  quid  amplius  postulatis  [apodosis]  (Lig  n) 
tj  he  IS  tn  exile,  what  more  do  you  ask  ?  J  v     &•    j;, 

cl^T'~^'  '^"""^"^  ^''  ''''^""^'  "^^'^  '^^'  '^'  P^^^^'«  i«  the  dependent 

_  a.  The  Protasis  is  regiUarly  introduced  by  the  conditional  particle 
Bi  (if)  or  one  of  its  compounds  :  sin,  niai,  etiamai.  etsi.  tametai. 


§  305-] 


CLASSIFICA  TION. 


pnrase  .  as,  sic,  ita,  turn,  ea  condicione,  etc.     Thus,  — 

ita  enim  senectus  honesta  est,  sJ  se  ipsa  defendit  (Cat.'  Mai   ,8)  .«  Ms 
_    W,/,.„  ,s  M  a^,  konoraiU,  .fit  defines  itsdf.  ''  ^  ''        "" 

siquidemmeamarettumistucprodessetrrer  Fun  ...fii     rt    ,      j 
then  this  would  be  profitable  '•'**'  ^ ""  ^'^"'  "'' 

c.  The  Apodosis  is  the  principal  clause  of  the  conditional  sentence 
but  may  at  the  same  time  be  subordinate  to  some  other  clause  and 
so  be  ,n  the  form  of  a  Participle,  an  Infinitive,  or  a  Phrase     as  - 

sepultura  quoque  prohlbituri  „i  rex  human- iussisset  (Q.  C.  viu  -   ,2)  ,„ 
t^nd.ngalso  to  deprire  hi,n  of  burial,  unless  the  king  ha'J  "deZ 
htm  to  be  interred.  ^  ^raerea 

quod  SI  praeterea  nemo  sequatur,  tamen  se  cum  sola  decima  legione 
TZh  r  :^  "l?-'-  '"]'  ""  -^  ""  '"'  ""  -'■""  f'"^'  "'  -«^ 

go  with  the  tenth  legton  alone. 
SI  quos  adversum  proelium  commoveret,  hos  reperire  posse  (id.),  if  the 

loss  of  a  battle  alarmed  any,  they  might  find,  etc. 
Note.  _  When  the  Apodosis  itself  is  in  Indirect.Discourse,  or  in  anv  de 
tive  (as  m  the  first  two  of  the  above  examples,  see  §  -^^yj). 
d.  Conditions  are  either  (i)  Particular  or  (2)  General 

1.  A  Particular  Condition  refers  to  a  definite  act  or  series  of  acts 
occurring  at  some  definite  time. 

2.  A  General  Condition  refers  to  any  one  of  a  class  of  acts  which 
may  occur  (or  may  have  occurred)  at  any  time. 

2.     Classification. 

306.    The  principal   or   typical    Forms  of   conditional 
sentences  may  be  exhibited  as  follows  :  _ 

a.  Simple  Co.nditions,  with  nothing  implied  as  to  fuWlmem. 
I.  Present,  nothing  implied.     Present  Indicative  in  both  clauses. 
Modest,!  bene  est,  if  he  is  [now]  here,  it  is  well. 


Cf.  the  (Seek  forms:   a.  i.  ri  Tpd^„,  „i^„,  ,^Xwt  tx^u 

2-  «  .V^.r«  roDro,  ™X&  eTxe...     «' r,rpaf.  roSro,  «a\&  ?„™ 
b.  . .  ci,  xpd.r„,  roDr»,  ««X&  ?{«.        ,.  „•  ,^„„.  „5^„_  ,^^ .,  ^^ 

d.  I.  ii,  r„  «X^xr  J,  .r„X4{-„„.  2.  rf  r«  kUitto,,  iKoXi^ero. 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES, 


[§  305- 


2.  Past,  nothing  implied.     Some  past  tense  of  the  Indicative  in 
both  clauses. 

si  aderat,  bene  erat,  if  he  was  [then]  here,  it  was  well. 
si  adfuit,  bene  fuit,  if  he  has  been  here,  it  has  been  well. 

b.  Future  Conditions  (necessarily  as  yet  unfulfilled). 

1 .  More  vivid. 

(a)  Future  Indicative  in  both  clauses, 
si  aderit,  bene  erit,  if  he  is  (shall  be)  here,  it  will  be  well. 
{§)  Future  Perfect  Indicative  in  protasis,  Future  Indicative  in 
apodosis  (condition  thought  of  as  completed  before  conclusion  begins). 
sj  adfuerit,  bene  erit,  if  he  is  (shall  have  been)  here,  it  w;///[then]  be  well. 

2.  Less  vivid. 

(a)  Present  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses. 

si  adsit,  bene  sit,  if  he  should  be  here  it  would  be  well. 

(p)  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  protasis.  Present  Subjunctive  in  apod- 
osis (condition  thought  of  as  completed  before  conclusion  begins). 

si  adfuerit,  bene  sit,  tf  he  should  be  (should  have  been)  here,  it  would 
[then]  be  well. 

c.  Conditions  Contrary  to  Fact. 

1 .  Present,  contrary  to  fact.    Imperfect  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses. 

si  adesset,  bene  esset,  ;/  he  were  [now]  here,  it  would  be  well  (but  he  is 
NOT  here). 

2.  Past,  contrary  to  fact.     Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses. 

si  adfuisset,  bene  fuisset,  //  he  had  [then]  been  here,   it  would  have  been 
well  (but  he  was  not  here). 

d.  General  Conditions.  Usually  not  differing  in  form  from 
Particular  Conditions  {a,  b,  c)  ;  but  sometimes  distinguished  in  the 
cases  following :  — 

1.  Present  General  Condition  (Indefinite  Time). 

(a)  Present  Subjunctive  second  person  singular  in  protasis.  Present 
Indicative  in  apodosis. 

si  hoc  dicas,  creditur,  if  any  one  [ever]  says  this,  it  is  [always]  believed. 

{f)  Perfect  Indicative  in  protasis.  Present  in  apodosis. 

si  quid  dixit,  creditur,  if  he  [ever]  says  anything,  it  is  [always]  believed. 

2.  Past  General  Condition  (Repeated  Action  in  Past  Time). 


§  306.]  PRESENT  AND   PAST  CONDITIONS. 


259 


(a)  Imperfect   Subjunctive   in  protasis.   Imperfect  Indicative  in 
apodosis. 

si  quid  diceret,  credebatur,  //  ke  [ever]  said  anything  it  was  [always] 
believed  (=  whatever  he  said  was  always  believed). 

(/3)  Pluperfect  Indicative  in  protasis.  Imperfect  in  apodosis. 
si  quid  dixerat,  credebatur,  //  he  [ever]  said  anything,  it  was  believed 

Remark.  — The  use  of  tenses  in  Pj-otasis  is  very  loose  in  English. 
Thus,  if  he  is  alive  now  is  a  present  condition,  to  be  expressed  in  Latin  by 
the  Present  Indicative  ;  //  he  is  alive  next  year  is  a  future  condition,  ex- 
pressed in  Latin  by  the  Future  Indicative.  Again,  if  he  were  here  «^'is  a 
present  condition  contrary  to  fact,  and  would  be  expressed  by  the  Imper- 
fect Subjunctive ;  //  he  were  to  see  me  thus  is  a  future  condition  less 
vivid,  to  be  expressed  by  the  Present  Subjunctive  ;  and  so,  too,  if  you  advised 
him,  he  would  attend  may  be  future  less  vivid. 

3.    Present  and  Past  Conditions.  —  Nothing  Implied. 

306.  (Rule  73.)  In  the  statement  of  present  and  past 
conditions  whose  falsity  is  not  implied,  the  present  and 
past  tenses  of  the  Indicative  are  used  in  both  Protasis  and 
Apodosis.     Thus,  — 

si  tu  exercitusque  valetis,  bene  est  (Fam.  v.  2),  if  you  and  the  army  are 
well,  it  is  well.     [Present  Condition.] 

si  qui  magnis  ingeniis  in  eo  genere  exstiterunt,  non  satis  Graecdrum 
gloriae  responderunt  (Tusc.  i.  3),  ,/  any  men  have  appeared  of 
great  genius  in  that  branch,  they  have  failed  to  compete  with  the  glory 
of  the  Greeks.     [Past  Condition.] 

accepi  Roma  sine  epistula  tua  fasciculum  litterarum  in  quo  si  modo 
valuisti  et  Romae  fuisti  Philotimi  duco  esse  culpam  non  tuam  (Att. 
v.  17),  I  have  received  from  Rome  a  bundle  of  letters  without  any  from 
you,  which,  if  you  have  been  well  and  at  Rome,  I  take  to  be  the  fault  of 
Philotimus,  not  yours.  [Mixed  :  Past  condition  and  Present  conclu- 
sion.] 

quas  litteras,  si  Romae  es,  videbis  putesne  reddendas  (Att.  v.  18),  as 
to  this  letUr,  if  you  are  at  Rome,  you  will  see  whether  in  your  opinion 
it  ought  to  be  delivered.     [Mixed  :  Present  and  Future.] 

si  nemo  impetravit  adroganter  rog6(Ligar.  30),  if  no  one  has  succeeded 
in  obtaining  it,  my  request  is  presumptuous.     [Past  and  Present.] 

a.  In  these  conditions,  the  apodosis  need  not  always  be  in  the  In- 
dicative, but  may  assume  any  form,  according  to  the  sense.     Thus,  — 


26o 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES. 


[§  307. 


fuerit  hoc  censoris,  si  iudicabat  (Div.  i.  29),  suppose  it  was  the  censor's 

duty,  if  he  judged  it  false.     [Hortatory  S  ubj  unctive.] 
si  nondum  satis  cemitis,  recordamini  (Milo,  61),  if  you  do  not  yet  see 

clearly,  recollect.     [Imperative.] 
si  quid  habes  certius,  velim  scire  (Att.  iv.  10),  if  you  have  any  trustworthy 
information,  I  should  like  to  know  it.     [Subj.  of  Modesty,  §  31 1.  b.1 

Note.  — Although  th^form  of  these  conditions  does  not  imply  anything 

as  to  their  truth,  the  sense  or  context  may  have  some  such  implication  :  as,  — 

nollte,  si  in  nostro  omnium  fletu  nullam  lacrimam  aspexistis  Milonis,  hoc 

minus  ei  parcere  (Milo,  92),  do  not,  tf  amid  the  weeping  of  us  all  you 

have  seen  no  tear  [in  the  eyes]  of  Milo,  spare  him  the  less  for  that. 

In  this  passage  a  cause  is  put  by  the  speaker  in  the  form  of  a  non- 
committal condition.     His  hearers  are  to  draw  the  inference  for  themselves. 


4.    Future  Conditions. 

307.    Future  Conditions  may  be  more  or  less  vivid. 

1.  In  a  more  vivid  future  condition  the  protasis  makes 
a  distinct  supposition  of  a  future  case,  the  apodosis  ex- 
pressing what  will  be  the  result. 

2.  In  a  less  vivid  future  condition,  the  supposition  is 
less  distinct,  the  apodosis  expressing  what  would  be  the 
result  in  the  case  supposed. 

a.  In  the  ifiore  vivid  future  condition  the  Future  Indicative  is  used 
in  both  protasis  and  apodosis  :  as,  — 

sanabimur  si  volemus  (Tusc.  iu.  13),  we  shall  be  healed  if  we  7vish. 

Note. --In  English  the  protasis  is  usually  expressed  by  the  Present 
Indicative,  rarely  by  the  future  with  shall.  Sometimes  in  Latin  a  con- 
dition of  this  kind  has  the  Present  Indicative  in  the  protasis:  as,— 

si  pereo  hominum  manibus  periisse  iuvabit  (^n.  iii.  606),  if  I  perish,  it 
'      will  be  pleasant  to  have  perished  at  the  hands  of  men. 

b.  In  the  less  vivid  future  condition  the  Present  Subjunctive  is 
used  in  both  protasis  and  apodosis  :  as,  — 

haec  si  tecum  patria  loquatur,  nonne  impetrare  debeat  (Cat.  i.  19),  if  your 
country  should  thus  speak  with  thee,  ought  she  not  to  prevail  ? 

Remark.  — The  present  subjunctive  sometimes  stands  in  protasis  with 
the  future  in  apodosis  from  a  change  in  the  point  of  view  of  the  speaker. 


§  307-] 


FUTURE   CONDITIONS. 


261 


c.  If  the  conditional  act  is  regarded  as  completed  before  that  of 
the  apodosis  begins,  the  Future  Perfect  is  substituted  for  the  Future 
Indicative  in  protasis,  and  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  for  the  Present 
Subjunctive  :  as,  — 

si  non  feceris,  ignoscam  (Fam.  v.  19),  if  you  do  not  do  it,  I  will  excuse  you. 

Remark.  —  The  Future  Perfect  is  very  often  used  in  the  apodosis  of  a 
future  condition  :  as,  — 

vehementer  mihi  gratum  feceris,  si  hunc  adolescentem  humanitate  tua 
comprehenderis  (Fam.  xiii.  i^),  you  will  do  (will  have  done)  me  a 
great  favor,  if  you  receive  this  young  man  with  your  usual  courtesy. 

d.  Any  form  implying  future  time  may  stand  in  the  apodosis  of 
a  future  condition.  So  the  Imperative,  the  participles  in  -dus  and 
-rus,  and  verbs  of  necessity,  possibility,  and  the  like  :  as,  — 

si  me  praeceperit  fatum,  vos  mandasse  memento,  if  fate  cuts  me  off  too 
soon,  do  you  remember  that  I  ordered  this  (Q.  C.  ix.  6,  26). 

nisi  oculis  videritis  insidias  Miloni  a  Clodio  factas,  nee  deprecaturi  sumus 
nee  postulaturi  (Milo,  6),  ujtless  you  see  with  your  mvn  eyes  the 
plots  laid  against  Milo  by  Clodius,  I  shall  neither  beg  nor  demand,  etc. 

non  possum  istum  accusare  si  cupiam  (Verr.  iv.  ?>^),  I  cannot  accuse  him 
if  I  should  desire  to. 

e.  Rarely  the  Perfect  Indicative  is  used  in  apodosis  with  a  Present 
or  even  a  Future  in  protasis,  to  represent  the  conclusion  rhetorically 
as  already  accomplished :  as,  — 

si  hoc  bene  fixum  in  animo  est,  vicistis  (Liv.  xxi.  44),  if  this  is  well  fixed 
in  your  minds,  you  have  conquered.     [For  you  will  have  conquered.'\ 

si  eundem  [animum]  habueritis,  vicimus  (id.  43),  if  you  shall  have  kept 
the  same  spirit,  we  have  conquered. 

f.  A  future  condition  is  frequently  thrown  back  into  past  time, 
without  implying  that  it  is  contrary  to  fact  (§  308).  In  such  cases 
the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  may  be  used  :  as,— 

non  poterat  nisi  vellet  (B.  C.  iii,  44),  was  notable  unless  he  wished. 

tumulus  apparuit  ...  si  luce  palam  iretur  hostis  praeventurus  erat  (Liv. 
xxii.  24),  a  hill  appeared  .  .  .  if  they  should  go  openly  by  light,  the 
enemy  would  prevent.  [The  first  two  appear  like  ind.  disc,  but 
are  not.  An  observer  describing  the  situations  as  present  ones 
would  say  potest  si  velit  (etc.,  see  d),  and  no  ind.  disc,  would  be 
thought  of. 


262 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES. 


[§  308. 


5-    Conditions  Contrary  to  Fact. 

308.  (Rule  73.3.)  In  the  statement  of  a  supposition 
known  to  be  false,  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunc- 
tive are  used  in  both  Protasis  and  Apodosis.  The  imper- 
fect refers  to  Present  Time,  the  pluperfect  to  Past :  as,  — 

quas  si  exsequi  nequirem,  tamen  me  lectulus  oblectaret  meus  (Cat.  Mai 
Z^\  if  I  could  not  [now]  follow  this  (an  active  life),  yet  my  couch 
would  afford  me  pleasure.     [  Present.] 

nisi  tu  amisisses,  nunquam  recepissem  (id.  ii),  unless  you  had  lost  it,  I 
should  not  have  recovered  it.     [Past.] 

a.  In  conditions  contrary  to  fact  the  Imperfect  often  refers  to/^.f/ 
time,  both  in  protasis  and  apodosis,  especially  when  a  repeated  or 
continued  action  is  denoted,  or  when  the  condition  if  true  would  still 
exist:  as, — 

hic  si  mentis,  asset  suae,  ausus  esset  educere  exercitum  (Pis.  50),  //  he 
were  of  sane  mind,  would  he  have  dared  to  lead  out  the  army  ? 
[Here  esset  denotes  a  continued  state,  past  as  well  as  present.] 

b    In  the  apodosis  of  a  condition  contrary  to  fact  the  Past  tenses 
of  the  Indicative  may  be  used  to  express  what  was  intended,  or  likely 
or  already  begun  :  as,  —  •  -^* 

SI  licitum  esset  matres  veniebant  (Verr.  v.  129),  the  mothers  were  coming 

tj  tt  had  been  allowed  (see  §  305,  c.  2). 
iam  tiita  tenebam,  ni  gens  crudelis  ferro  invasisset  (^n.  vi.  358)   I  was 
just  reaching  a  place  of  safety,  had  not  the  fierce  people  attacked  me. 

Remark.  -  In  this  use,  the  imperfect  indicative  corresponds  in  time  to 
the  imperfect  subjunctive,  and  the  perfect  or  pluperfect  indicative  to  the 
pluperfect  subjunctive. 

c  '^f^^^^^^^V^^^s,or.sA^^o\:mg  necessity,  propriety,  Possibility, 
duty,y^^^^n  used  in  the  Apodosis  of  a  condition  contrary  to  fact  are 
regularly  put  in  the  Imperfect,  Perfect,  or  Pluperfect  Indicative  in- 
stead of  the  Subjunctive  :  as,  — 

si  ita  putasset  cerfe  optabilius  Milonl  fuit  (Mil.  31),  if  he  had  thought 

so,  surely  tt  would  have  been  preferable  for  Milo. 
Si  Roniae  privatus  esset  hoc  tempore,  tamen  is  erat  deligendus  (Manil 

SO),  if  he  (Pompey)  were  at  this  time  a  private  citizen  at  Rome,  yet  he 

ought  to  be  appointed. 


^  309-] 


GENERAL   CONDITIONS. 


263 


Note  i.  —  In  this  construction  it  is  only  the  thing  necessary  (etc.)  that 
is  conditioned,  and  not  the  necessity  itself.  If  the  necessity  itself  is  con- 
ditioned, the  Subjunctive  is  used  as  with  other  verbs.  The  difference  is 
often  imperceptible,  but  may  be  seen  in  the  following  example  :  — 

quid  facere  potuissem  nisi  tum  cdnsul  fuissem  ?  consul  autem  esse  qui 
potui  nisi  eum  vitae  cursum  tenuissem  a  pueritia  (Rep.  i.  10),  what 
could  I  have  done  if  I  had  not  then  been  consul ;  and  how  could  I 
have  been  consul  if  I  had  not  followed  that  course  of  life  from  boyhood? 

Note  2.  —  This  construction  is  sometimes  carried  further  in  poetry :  as,  — 

si  non  alium  iactaret  oddrem,  laurus  erat  (Georg.  ii.  133),  //  were  a  laurel, 
but  for  giving  out  a  different  odor. 

d.  The  participle  in  -urus  with  eram  or  fui  may  take  the  place  of 
an  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in  the  Apodosis  of  a  condition 
contrary  to  fact :  as,  — 

quid  enim  futurum  fuit  [==  fuisset],  si  .  .  .  (Liv.  ii.  i),  what  would  have 

happened  if,  etc. 
neqiie  ambigitur  quin  ...  id  facturus  fuerit,  si  .  .  .  (id.),  nor  is  there  any 

question  he  would  have  done  it  if  etc.     [Direct :  fecisset.] 

Note.  —  This  construction  is  regularly  used  when  the  apodosis  is  itself 
a  dependent  clause  requiring  the  subjunctive,  and  also  in  Indirect  Discourse. 
In  Indirect  Discourse  fuisse  replaces  eram  or  fui  (see  §  337). 

e.  The  Present  and  Perfect  subjunctive  are  sometimes  used  in 
poetry  in  the  protasis  and  apodosis  of  conditions  contrary  te  fact : 
as,  — 

nl  comes  admoneat,  inruat  (^n.  vi.  293),  had  not  his  companion  warned 

him,  he  would  have  rushed  on. 
nl  faciat  maria  ac  terras  ferant  (id.  i.  58),  unless  he  did  this,  they  would 

bear  away  sea  and  land. 
Note.  —  This  is  a  remnant  of  an  old  construction.     Its  use  puts  the 
condition  in  a  vivid  form, — as  if  possible  at  any  moment  in  the  future 
though  not  noiv  true. 

6.    General  Conditions. 

309.  General  Conditions  (§  304.  d)  have  usually  the 
same  forms  as  Particular  Conditions.  But  they  are  some- 
times distinguished  in  the  following  three  cases :  — 

a.  The  Subjunctive  is  sometimes  used  in  the  second  person  singular, 
to  denote  the  act  of  an  Indefinite  Subject  {you  =  any  one).  Here 
the  Indicative  of  a  general  truth  may  stand  in  the  apodosis  :  as, — 


264 


COA^D/T/OJVAL   SENTENCES. 


[§  310- 


§3"0 


CONDITION  OMITTED. 


mens  prope  uti  ferrum  est:  si  exerceas  conteritur;  nisi  exerceas,  rubl- 
gmem  contrahit  (Cato  de  Mor.),  tAe  mind  is  very  like  ^ron :  if  you 
use  It,  tt  wears  away  ;  if  you  donU  use  it,  it  gathers  rust, 
d.  In  later  writers  (not  in  Cicero),  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect 
Subjunctive  are  used  in  protasis,  with  the  Imperfect  Indicative  in 
apodosis,  to  state  a  repeated  or  customary  action  in  past  time  :  as,  _ 
accusatore-s,  si  facultas  incideret,  poenis  adficiebantur  (Tac.  A.  vi  30)  the 
accusers,  whenever  opportunity  offered,  were  visited  with  punishment. 
..In  a  general  condition  in  present  time,  the  protasis  often  takes 
the  Perfect,  and  the  apodosis  the  Present  Indicative.     For  past  time, 
the  Pluperfect  IS  used  in  the  protasis,  and  the  Imperfect  in  the  apod- 
osis.     Thus,  —  ^ 

si  quos  aliqua  membrorum  parte  inutiles  notaverunt,  necarl  iubent  (Q   C 
IX.  I,  25),  if  they  [ever]  mark  any  infirm  in  any  part  of  thetr  limbs, 
they  [always]  order  them  to  be  put  to  death.     [Present  ] 
SI  a  persequendo  hostes  deterrere  nequlverant  ab  tergo  circumveniebant 
(J"g-  50).  tf  [ever]  they  were  unable  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  pur- 
suing,  they  [always]  surrounded  them  in  the  rear.     [Past.] 
^    In  all  other  cases,  general  suppositions  -  including  those  intro- 
duced by  Indefinite  Relatives  _  are  not  distinguished  in  form  from 
Particular  Conditions. 

7-     Condition  Disguised. 

310.  In  many  sentences  properly  conditional,  the  Prot- 
asis IS  not  expressed  by  a  conditional  clause,  but  is  stated 
in  some  other  form  of  words  or  implied  in  the  nature  of 
the  thought.     Thus,  — 

a.  The  condition  may  be  implied  in  a  Clause  or  in  a  Participle, 
Noun,  Adverb,  or  some  otlier  word  or  phrase.     Thus  — 

'""rRr,tT"^'Tf.*'''  iMicequaere„te-pro  Sex.  Roscio  dicere 
(Rose  Am.  is),  I  should  readily  allcw  n,yself  u  speak  for  Rosdus 
/  that  very  judge  were  conducting  the  trial.  [Present  contrary  to 
fact :  SI  quaereret,  etc.]  ' 

nulla  alia  gens  tan.I  mole  cladis  non  obruta  esset  (IJv.  xxii.  54),  there  is 
no  other  people  that  ^ould  not  have  been  crushed  by  such  a  Light  of 
disaster.     [Past  contrary  to  fact :  si  alia  fuisset.l 

"""mo"rZTT°"""T'"^  immortalitatis,  se  pro  patria  offerret  ad 
mortem  (Tusc. ,.  32),  „o  one,  without  great  hope  of  immortality,  would 
ever  expose  himself  to  death  for  his  country.  [Present  contrary  to 
tact  :  nisi  magnam  spem  haberet.] 


265 


b.  The  condition  may  be  contained  in  a  Wish  {optative  subjunc- 
tive), or  expressed  as  an  Exhortation  or  Command  {hortatory  sub- 
junctive, or  imperative)  :  as,  — 

utinam  quidem  fuissem!  molestus  nobis  non  esset  (Fam.  xii.  3),  /  wish 
I  had  been  [chief]  :  he  would  not  now  be  troubling  us  {i.e.  if  I  had 
been).     [Optative  Subjunctive.] 

Note.  —  The  so-called  concessive  subjunctive  with  ut  and  ne  often  has 
the  force  of  a  protasis  (§  313.  a)  :  as,  — 

ut  enim  rationem  Plato  nullam  afferret,  ipsa  auctoritate  me  frangeret 
(Tusc.  i.  49),  even  if  Plato  gave  no  reason,  [still]  he  would,  etc. 

c.  Rarely  the  condition  is  in  an  independent  clause,  as, 

rides:  maiore  cachinno  concutitur  (Juv.  iii.  100),  you  laugh  ;  he  shakes 
with  louder  laughter  (=  if  you  laugh,  he  shakes). 

d.  The  condition  is  often  contained  in  a  Relative  Clause  (§  316). 

Remark.  —  For  the  use  of  a  participle  as  Apodosis,  see  §  304.  c. 

\ 

8.    Condition  Omitted. 

311.    The  Protasis  is  often  wholly  omitted,  but  may  be 
inferred  from  the  course  of  the  argument.     Thus,  — 

poterat  Sextilius  impune  negare  :  quis  enim  redargueret  (Fin.  ii.  55),  Sex- 
tilius  might  have  denied  with  impunity;  for  who  would  prove  him 
wrong  (if  he  had). 

Remark.  —  Under  this  head  apparently  belongs  the  Potential  Sub- 
junctive. 

I.   potential  subjunctive. 

/  •  a.    (Rule  72.)    The  Potential  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  an 

'  action  not  as  actually  performed,  but  ^lS  possible. 

In  this  use  the  Present  and  the  Perfect  refer  without  distinction 
to  the  immed'isite  future y  the  Imperfect  to  past  time.  The  second 
person  is  common,  indicating  an  Indefinite  Subject  (cf.  §  309.  a). 
Thus,  — 

hie  quaerat  quispiam  (N.  D.  ii.  133),  here  some  one  may  ask. 
ut  aliquis  fortasse  dixerit  (Off.  iii.  97),  as  one  may  perhaps  say. 
tum  in  lect5  quoque  videres  susurros  (Hor.  Sat.  ii.  8.  77),  then  on  each 
couch  you  might  hear  whisperings. 

Note  i  .  —  The  Present  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Imperfect  :  as,  — 
migrantis  cemas  (iEn.  iv.  401),  you  might  have  seen  them  moving. 


266 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES. 


[§3"- 


Note   2. -The  Pluperfect  is  rare.     Its  place  is  supplied  by  the  Im- 

putasses  eius  luctus  aliquem  finem  esse  debere  (Sen.  Dial.  6,  n)    you 
would  have  thought  there  ought  to  be  some  end  to  his  grief. 

Note  3. -The  subjunctive  with  forsitan  does  not   differ  in    meaning 
from  the  Potential  Subjunctive,  but  is  an  Indirect  Question  (§  334  ^)  •  as  - 

forsitan  haec  illl  mirentur  (Verr.  iv.  124),  they  may  perchance  marvel  at 
these  things. 

Remark.  -  The  potential  subjunctive  is  strictly  an  apodosis  with 
omitted  protasis,  sometimes  easily  supplied,  but  often  not  present  to  the 
mmd  of  the  speaker.     So  also  the  Subjunctive  of  Modesty  (^,  below). 

II.     SUBJUxNCTIVE    OF    MODESTY. 

b.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  cautious,  modest,  or  hypothetical 
statements  {coniunctlvus  modestiae).  This  use  is  especially  common 
in  a  polite  wish,  with  velim  or  vellem.     Thus  — 

pace  tua  dixerim  (Mil.  103),  I  would  say  bv  your  leave 

tu  velim  sic  existimes  (Fam.  xii.  6),  I  should  like  you  to  think  so 

VDc  ausim  credere  (Ov.  M.  vi.  561),  I  should  hardly  dare  believe. 

vellem  adesset  M.  Antonius  (Phil.  i.  16),  I couldw^sh  Antony  ^ere  here 

[Here  vellem  implies  an  unfulfilled  wish  in  present  time  ;  volo  or 

nolo  would  express  a  peremptory  wish.] 

III.    VERBS    OF   NECESSITY. 

c.  The  Indicative  of  verbs  signifying  necessity,  propriety,  and  the 
like,  may  be  used  in  the  apodosis  of  implied  conditions,  either  future 
or  contrary  to  fact  :  as,  — 

^'"^Fut'ureT  ^''''''  '^^  "  '  ^^'^''  ''^'  "  '"'''^'^  ^'  '''^'"'  ''  ''^^'  '''• 

illud  erat  aptius    aecum  cuique  concedere  (Fin.  iv.  2).  it  would  be  more 
.    Jittmg  to  yield  each  one  his  rights. 

quanta  meliua  fuerat  (Oil.  iii.  94),  Ho^  much  better  it  would  have  keen. 

Remark. -Notice  that,  in  this  construction,  the  Imperfect  indicative 
^Z:JZr:"'""  "^  """^^^^  '°  simp.y^«,ti„e'.ike  the  Perfect 
(»^ght  to  have  been,  but  was  not. 

Note.  -In  many  cases  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  a  pro.asis  was 
present  to  the  mind  of  the  speaker  or  not.  P^oiasis  was 


§312-] 


PARTICLES   OF  COMPARISON. 


267 


g.    Complex  Conditions. 

d.  Either  the  protasis  or  the  apodosis  may  be  a  complex  idea  in 
which  the  main  statement  is  made  with  expressed  or  implied  qualifi- 
cations. In  such  cases  the  true  logical  relation  of  the  parts  is  some- 
times disguised  :  as,  — 

slquis  horum  dixisset  ...  si  verbum  de  republica  fecisset  .  .  .  multaplura 
dixisse  quam  dixisset  putaretur  (Rose.  Am.  2),  if  any  of  these  had 
spoken,  in  case  he  had  said  a  word  about  politics,  he  would  be  thought 
to  have  said  much  more  than  he  did  say.  [Here  the  apodosis  of 
dixisset  is  the  whole  of  the  following  statement  (si  .  .  .  putaretur), 
which  is  itself  conditioned  by  a  protasis  of  its  own  :  si  verbum,  etc.]. 

quod  si  in  hoc  mundd  fieri  sine  deo  non  potuit  ne  in  sphaera  quidem 
eosdem  motiis  sine  divind  ingenid  potuisset  imitari  (Tusc.  i.  63)  fiow 
if  that  cannot  be  done  in  this  universe  without  divine  agency,  no  more 
could  [Archimedes]  in  his  orrery  have  imitated  the  same  revolutions 
without  divine  genius.  [Here  si  potuit  (a  protasis  with  nothing  im- 
plied) has  for  its  apodosis  the  whole  clause  which  follows,  but  po- 
tuisset has  a  contrary-to-fact  protasis  of  its  own  implied  in  sine  .  .  . 
ingenio.] 


10.    Particles  of  Comparison  (Conclusion  Omitted). 

312.  The  particles  of  Comparison  —  tamquam,  tamquam 
si,  quasi,  acsi,  utsi,  velutsi,  veluti,  and  poetic  ceu  (all  meaning 
as  if),  and  quam  si  {than  if)  — take  the  Present  or  Perfect 
Subjunctive,  unless  these  are  changed  by  the  sequence 
of  tenses.     Thus,  — 

tamquam  clausa  sit  Asia  (Fam.  xii.  9),  as  if  Asia  were  closed. 

ita  hos  [honores]  petunt,  quasi  honeste  vixerint  (Jug.  85),  they  seek  them 

(offices)  y«j/  as  if  they  had  lived  honorably. 
velut  si  coram  adesset  (B.  G.  i.  32),  c^s  if  he  were  present  in  person. 
ceu  cetera  nusquam  bella  forent  (vEn.  ii.  438),  as  if  there  were  no  fighting 

elsewhere. 
magis  quam  si  domi  esses  (Att.  vii.  4),  more  than  if  you  were  at  home. 

Remark.  —  The  English  idiom  would  lead  us  to  expect  the  Imperfect 
and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  with  these  particles  ;  but  the  point  of  view  is 
different  in  the  two  languages. 


268 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES. 


II.    Concessive  Clauses. 


Vlz^y 


313.   The  particles  of  Concession  (meaning  although, 

granting  that)   are  :  quamaBam.  quamlibet,  quamvis,  quantum- 
vis,  ut,  ne,  cum,  Ucet,^si,  tamfitsi,  etiamsi. 

a.  Quamvis,    quatumvis,  quamlibet,  ut,  and  ne   take   the   Sub- 
junctive (§  266.  c)  :  as,  — 

quamvis  ipsi  Infantes  sint,  tamen  .  .  .  {Ox.'j^),hmvever  incapable  of  speak- 
ing they  themselves  may  be,  yet,  etc. 
Ut  neminem  alium  rogasset  (MU.  46),  ez'en  if  he  had  asked  no  other, 

b.  Licet  (properly  a  verb)  takes  a  Substantive  clause  in  the  Sub- 
junctive (§  331.  ^)  :  as,— 

licet  omnes  in  me  terrores  periculaque  impendeant  (Rose.  Am.  31),  though 
all  terrors  and  perils  should  menace  me. 

Note. -The  subjunctive  with  licet  is  by  the  sequence  of  tenses  neces- 
sarily hmit»d  to  the  Present  and  Perfect  tenses. 

_  c.  Etsi.  etiamsi.  tametsi,  even  if  take  the  same  constructions  as 
M(§305):  as,— 

etsI  abest  maturitas  (Fam.  vi.  184),  though  ripeness  of  age  is  wanting. 
etsi  mhd  aliud  abstulissetis  (Sull.  90).  even  if  you  had  taken  away  nothing 

etiamsi  quod  scrlbas  non  habebis,  scribito  tamen  (Fam.  xvi.  26),  even  if 
you  [shall]  have  nothing  to  write,  still  write. 

d.  Cum  concessive  takes  the  Subjunctive  (see  §  326)  :  as,— 

cum  mihi  non  omnlno  excidisset  (Fam.  v.  13,2),  though  it  had  not  entirely 
vanished  [from  my  mindj. 

e.  Quamquam  introduces  an  admitted  fact  and  takes  the  Indica- 
tive :  as,  — 

omnibus -quamquam  ruit  ipse  suTs  cladibus - pestem  denuntiat  (Phil 
XIV.  8),  though  he  is  breaking  d(ra;n  under  his  disasters,  still  he  threat- 
ens all  with  destruction. 

/  Quamquam  more  commonly  means  and  yet,  introducing  a  cor- 
rection in  the  indicative  :  as, 

quamquam  haec  quidem  tolerabilia  videbantur,  etsi,  etc.  (Mil.  76).  and 
yet  these,  in  truth,  seemed  now  bearable,  though,  etc. 


§  314] 


PROVISO. 


269 


g.  The  poets  and  later  writers  frequently  use  quamvis  and  quam- 
quam like  etsi,  connecting  them  with  the  Indicative  or  the  Subjunc- 
tive, according  to  the  nature  of  the  condition.     Thus,  — 

quamquam  moveretar  (Liv.  xxxvi.  34),  although  he  was  moved. 
Pollio  amat  nostram,  quamvis  est  rustica,  musam  (Eel.  iii.  84),  Pollio 
loves  my  muse,  though  she  is  rustic. 

Note.  —  Even  Cicero  occasionally  uses  quamquam  with  the  Subjunctive  : 


as. 


quamquam  ne  id  quidem  suspicionem  coitionis  habuerit  (Plane.  53), 
though  not  even  that  raised  any  suspicion  of  a  coalition. 

h.  The  Relative  pronoun  qui  is  often  used  with  the  Subjunctive 
to  express  concession  (see  §  320.  e). 

i.  Concession   is  often  expressed  by  the  Hortatory  Subjunctive 
without  a  particle  (§  266)  :  as,  — 

sit  clarus  Scipio,  ometur  eximia  laude  Africanus,  habeatur  vir  egregius 
PauUus  .  .  .  erit  profecto  inter  horum  laudes  aliquid  loci  nostrae 
gloriae  (Cat.  iv.  21),  let  Scipio  be  renowned,  let  Africanus  be  honored 
with  especial  praise,  let  Paulus  be  regarded  as  a  remarkable  man, 
[still]  there  will  surely  be  some  room  for  my  glory  amid  the  praises  of 
these  men. 


la.    Proviso. 

314.    (Rule  74.)    Dum,  modo,  dummodo,  and  tantiun,  intro- 
ducing a  Proviso,  take  the  Subjunctive  :  as, — 

oderint  dum  metuant  (Off.  i.  97),  let  them  hate,  if  only  they  fear. 
valetudo  modo  bona  sit  (Brut,  d^),  provided  the  health  is  good. 
dummodo  inter  me  atque  te  murus  intersit  (Cat.  i.  lo),  provided  only  the 
wall  (of  the  city)  is  between  us. 

tf.  In  a  negative  proviso  ne  is  used,  with  or  without  modo,  etc.  : 
as,— 

modo  ne  sit  ex  pecudum  genere  (Off.  i.  10$),  provided  [m  pleasure]  he  be 
not  of  the  herd  of  cattle. 

id  faeiat  saepe,  dum  ne  lassus  fiat  (Cato  R.  R.  v.  4),  let  him  do  this 
often,  provided  he  does  not  get  tired. 

dummodo  ea  (se Veritas)  ne  varietur  (Q.  Fr.  L  i,  26), provided  only  it  (strict- 
ness) be  not  allowed  to  swerve. 

tantum  ne  noceat  (Ov.  M.  ix.  21),  only  let  it  do  no  harm. 


270 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES. 


[§315- 


b.  The  Hortatory  Subjunctive  without  a  particle  sometimes  ex- 
presses a  proviso  (see  §  266.  d)  :  as,  — 

sint  Maecenates,  non  deerunt,  Flacce,  Marones  (Mart.  viii.  56,  5),  so  ther, 
be  Macenases,  Virgils  will  not  be  lacking. 

13.     Use  of  Si  and  its  Compounds. 

315.  The  uses  of  some  of  the  more  common  Conditional 
Particles  may  be  stated  as  follows  :  — 

a.  I.  Si  is  used  for  affir?native,  nisi  (ni)  and  si  non  for  negative 
conditions.  With  nisi  (generally  unless)  the  apodosis  is  stated  as 
universally  true  except  in  the  single  case  supposed,  in  which  case  it 
IS  (impliedly)  not  triie.     Thus,  — 

nisi  Conon  adest  maereo,  unless  Canon  is  here,  I  mourn  {i.e.  I  am  always 
m  a  state  of  grief  except  in  the  single  case  of  Conon's  presence,  in 
which  case  I  am  not). 

With  si  non  (//  not)  the  apodosis  is  only  stated  as  true  in  the 
(negative)  case  supposed,  but  as  to  other  cases  no  statement  is 
made.     Thus,  — 

si  Conon  non  adest  maereo,  //  Conon  is  not  here  I  mourn  {i.e.  I  mourn  in 
the  single  case  of  Conon's  absence,  nothing  being  said  as  to  other 
cases  in  which  I  may  or  may  not  mourn). 

2.  Ni  is  an  old  form  surviving  in  a  few  conventional  phrases,  and 
reappearing  in  poets  and  later  writers. 

Sometimes  nisi  si,  except  if,  unless,  occurs  :  as,  — 
noli  putare  me  ad  quemquam  longiores  epistulas  scribere,  nisi  si  quis  ad 
me  plura  scripsit  (Fam.  xiv.  2),  except  in  case  one  writes  more  to  me. 

b.  Nisi  vero  and  nisi  forte  regularly  introduce  an  objection  or 
exception  ironically,  and  take  the  Indicative  :  as,  — 

nisi  vero  L.  Caesar  criidelior  visus  est  (Cat.  iv.   13),  unless,  indeed,  L. 
CcBsar  seemed  too  cruel. 

Note.  -  This  is  the  regular  way  of  introducing  a  reductio  ad  absurdum 
m  Latin.     Nisi  alone  is  sometimes  used  in  this  sense  :  as,  — 

nisi  unum  hoc  faciam  ut  in  puteo  cenam  coquant   (Plaut.  Aul.   365), 
unless  I  do  this  one  thing,  [make  them]  cook  dinner  in  the  well. 

c.  Sive  (seu)  .  .  .  sive  (sen),  whether  .  .  .  or,  introduce  a  con- 
dition in  the  form  of  an  alternative.  They  may  be  used  with  any 
form  of  condition,  or  with  different  forms  in  the  two  members.  Often 
also  they  are  used  without  a  verb.     Thus,  — 


§316.] 


RELATIVE    CLAUSES. 


2yi 


nam  illo  loco  libentissime  soleo  utT,  sive  quid  mecum  ipse  cogito,  sive 
quid  aut  scribo  aut^  lego  (De  Leg  ii.  i),  /..  /  ,„joy  ,nyself  most  in 
that  place,  whether  lam  thinking  by  myself  or  am  either  writing  or 
reading.  " 

Note.  —  Sive  ...  seu  and  seu  .  .  .  sive  are  late  or  poetic. 
DEPENDENT     CONSTRUCTIONS. 

I.     RELATIVE  CLAUSES. 

Dependent  Relative  Clauses  may  be  thus  classified  :  — 

1.  Conditional  Relative  Clauses  (§  316). 

2.  Clauses  of  Purpose  {Einal  Clauses)  (§  317). 

3.  Clauses  of  Characteristic,  including  — 
\jfa.  Simple  Result  {Consecutive  Clauses)  (§319). 

b.  Clauses  of  Characteristic  (including  cause  and  hindrance)  (§§  320, 

e.  Clauses  of  Time  (§§  322  ff.). 


I.    Conditional  Relative  Clauses. 

316.  A  clause  introduced  by  a  Relative  Pronoun  or 
Relative  Adverb  may  be  treated  as  a  conditional  clause 
and  take  the  constructions  of  Protasis  (§  305)  :  as,— 

qui  enim  vitiTs  modum  apponit,  is  partem  suscipit  vitiorum  (Tusc.  iv.  42), 

he  who  [only]  sets  a  limit  to  faults,  takes  up  the  side  of  the  faults. 

[=  si  quis  apponit] 
quod  qui  faciet,  non  aegritiidine  solum  vacabit,  sed,  etc.  (Tusc.  iv  38) 

and  he  who  does  [shall  do]  this,  will  be  free  not  only,  etc.     r=si  quis' 

faciet.] 

phUosophia,  cui  qui  pareat,  omne  tempus  aetatis  sine  molestia  possit 
degere  (Cat.  Maj.  2),  philosophy,  which  if  any  one  should  obey,  he 
could  spend  his  whole  life  without  vexation.     [=  si  quis  pareat.]  ' 

quaecumque  causa  vos  hue  attulisset,  laetarer  (De  Or.  ii.  \^),  I  should  be 
glad,  whatever  cause  had  brought  you  here  {i.e.  if  any  other,  as  well  as 
the  one  which  did).     [=  si .  .  .  attulisset.] 

Note.  —  The  relative  in  this  construction  is  always  Indefinite  in  mean- 
ing,  and  more  commonly  inform. 

a.  The  special  constructions  of  General  Conditions  are  sometimes 
found  in  Conditional  Relative  Clauses  :  viz.,  — 


272 


DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS. 


\.%Z^1- 


1.  The  Second  Person  Singular  Subjunctive  in  the  protasis  with 
the  Indicative  of  2. general  truth  in  the  appdosis  (§309.  a)  :  as,— 

bonus  segnior  fit,  ubi  neglegas  (Jug.  31,  28),  a  good  man  becomes  less  dili- 
gent  when  you  don't  watch  him. 

2.  In  later  writers  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in  the 
protasis  and  the  Imperfect  Indicative  in  the  apodosis  :  as,— 

quocumque  se  intulisset,  victoriam  secum  trahebat  (Liv.  vi.  8),  wherever 
he  advanced y  he  carried  victory  with  him. 

3.  The  Perfect  or  Pluperfect  Indicative  in  the  protasis  and  the 
Present  or  Imperfect  Indicative  in  the  apodosis  (§  309.  c)  :  as,— 

cum  ad  villam  veni,  hoc  ipsum  nihU  agere  me  delectat  (De  Or.  ii.  24), 
whenever  I  come  to  the  villa,  this  very  doing  nothing  delights  me 
(whenever  I  have  come,  etc.).     [Present  General  Condition.] 

cum  rosam  viderat,  turn  incipere  ver  arbitrabatur  (Verr.  v.  27),  whenever 
he  saw  (had  seen)  a  rose,  then  he  thought  spring  was  beginning  [Past 
General  Condition.] 


2.    Clauses  of  Purpose. 

317.  (Rule  75.)  A  clause  expressing  purpose  is  called 
a  Final  Clause. 

Final  clauses  take  the  Subjunctive  introduced  by  ut 
(utd),  negative  ne  (ut  ne),  or  by  a  Relative  pronoun  or 
adverb. 

They  may  be  divided  into  Pure,  Relative,  and  Sub- 
stantive. 

1.  Pure  Clauses  of  Purpose  are  introduced  by  ut  (uti)  or  ne. 
They  express  the  purpose  of  the  main  verb  in  the  form  of  a  modify- 
ing clause. 

2.  Relative  Clauses  of  Purpose  are  introduced  by  the  Relative  pro- 
noun qui,  or  by  the  Relative  adverbs  ubi.  unde.  quo.  etc.  The  ante- 
cedent is  expressed  or  implied  in  the  main  clause. 

3.  Substantive  Clauses  of  Purpose  are    introduced   by  ut  (uti) 
negative  ne.     They  differ  from    Pure  Final  Clauses  in  having  the 
construction  of  a  substantive.     (For  Substantive  Clauses  of  Purpose 
see  §  331.)  ^      ' 

Examples  of  Pure  and  Relative  clauses  of  purpose  are  — 


%Z^1'^ 


CL.AUSES   OF  PURPOSE. 


273 


ab  aratro  abduxerunt  Cincinnatum,  ut  dictator  esset  (Fin.  vi.  \z),  they 
brought  Cincinnatus  from  the  plough  that  he  might  be  dictator. 

ne  qua  eius  adventus  procul  sTgnificatio  fiat  (B.  G.  vi.  29),  that  no  sign 
of  his  arrival  may  be  made  at  a  distance. 

ut  ne  sit  impune  (Mil.  31),  that  it  be  not  with  impunity. 

scribebat  orationes  quas  alii  dicerent  (Brut.  206),  he  wrote  speeches  for  other 
men  to  deliver. 

eo  exstincto  fore  unde  discerem  neminem  (Cat.  Maj.  1 2),  that  when  he  was 
dead  there  would  be  nobody  from  whom  (whence)  I  could  learn. 

Note.  —  The  Relative  in  this  construction  is  equivalent  to  ut  with  the 
corresponding  demonstrative.  Thus  qui  =  ut  is  (etc.),  ubi  =  ut  ibi,  and  so 
on  (cf.  §  319.  note). 

a.  Sometimes  the  relative  or  conjunction  has  a  correlative  in  the 
main  clause  :  as,  — 

legibus  idcirco  omnes  servimus,  ut  liberi  esse  possimus  (Clu.  \^%for 

this  reason  we  are  all  subject  to  the  laws,  that  we  may  be  free. 
eo  consilia  .  .  .    ut  (regularly),  with  this  design,  that,  etc. 
ea  causa  .  .  .  x\^,for  this  reason,  lest,  etc. 

b.  The  ablative  quo  (=  ut  eo)  is  used  as  a  conjunction  in  final 
clauses  which  contain  a  coinparative :  as, 

libertate  usus  est,  quo  impunius  dicax  esset  (Quinct.  11),  he  took  advantage 
of  liberty,  to  bluster  with  more  impunity  (by  which  the  more). 

Note    i.-So  quominus   (  =  ut  eo   minus)   introduces  a  subjunctive 
clause  after  verbs  of  hindering  (see  §  331.  e). 

Note  2.  -  Occasionally  quo  introduces  final  clauses  which  do  not  con- 
tain a  comparative  :  as,  — 

quo  sibi  (exercitum)  fidum  faceret  (Sail.  Cat.  ii),  in  order  to  make  the 
army  devoted  to  himself. 

c.  The  Principal  clause,  on  which  a  final  clause  depends,  is  often 
to  be  supplied  from  the  context.     Thus, 

ac  ne  longum  sit  .  .  .  iussimus  (Cat.  iii.  10),  and,  not  to  be  tedtous,  we 
ordered,  etc.      [Strictly,  in  order  not  to  be  tedious,  I  say,  we  ordered  ] 

sed  ut  eodem  revertar,  causa  haec  f uit  timoris  (Fam.  vi.  7,  3),  but,  to  return 
to  the  same  point,  this  was  the  cause  of  fear. 

Remark.  -  By  a  similar  ellipsis  the  subjunctive  is  used  with   nedum 
(sometimes  ne),  still  less,  not  to  mention  that:  as,— 

nedum  .  .  .  salvi  esse  possimus  (Clu.  95),  much  less  could  we  be  safe. 
nedum  isti  .  .  .  non  statim  conqulsituri  sint  aliquid  scelerii  et  flagiti  (Leg 

Ag.  ii.  91),  far  more  will  they  huttt  up  at  once  some  sort  of  crime  and 

scandal. 


274 


DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS. 


[§318. 


quippe  secundae  res  sapientium  animos  fatlgant  ;  ne  ill!  corruptls  mori- 
bus  victoriae  temperarent  (Sail.  Cat.  11),  for  prosperity  overmasters 
the  souls,  even  of  the  wise  ;  much  less  did  they  with  their  corrupt  morals 
put  any  check  on  victory. 

Note.  —  With  nedum  the  verb  itself  is  often  omitted  :  as,  — 

aptius  hQmanitatl  tuae  quam  tota  Peloponnesus  nedum  Patrae  (Fam.  vii. 
28,  I),  fitter  for  your  refinement  than  all  Peloponnesus,  to  say  nothing 
of  Patra. 

Remark.  —  Clauses  of  Purpose  are  sometimes  rendered  in  English  by 
that  or  in  order  that,  with  may  or  might ;  but  more  frequently  by  the  In- 
finitive with  TO  :  as,  — 

veni  ut  viderem,  /  came  to  see  (that  I  might  see). 

318.  The  Purpose  of  an  action  is  expressed  in  Latin 
in  various  ways  ;  but  never  (except  rarely  in  poetry)  by 
the  simple  Infinitive  as  in  English  (§  273). 

The  sentence,  they  came  to  seek  peace,  may  be  ren- 
dered— 

(i)  venerunt  ut  pacem  peterent.     [Final  clause  with  ut  (§  317).] 

(2)  venerunt  qui  pacem  peterent.     (Final  clause  with  Relative  (§  317).] 

(3)  [venerunt  ad  petendum  pacem.]     (Not  found  with  transitive  verbs 
(§  300.  note),  but  cf.  ad  parendum  senatui.)    [Gerund  with  ad  (§  300).] 

(4)  venerunt  ad  petendam  pacem.     [Gerundive  with  ad  (§  300).] 

(5)  venerunt  pacem  petendl  causa  (gratia).     [Gen.  of  Gerund  with  causa 
or  gratia  (§  298.  c).'] 

(6)  venerunt  pacis  petendae  causa  (gratia).     [Gen.  of  Gerundive  with 
causa  (§  298.  <r).] 

(7)  venerunt  pacem petlturl.  [Future  participle  (§  293.  <5)  :  not  in  Cicero.] 

(8)  venerunt  pacem  petitum.     [Former  supine  (§  302).] 

These  forms  are  not  used  indifferently,  but  — 

a.  The  usual  way  of  expressing  purpose  is  by  ut  (negatively  ne), 
unless  the  purpose  is  closely  connected  with  some  one  word,  in  which 
case  a  relative  is  more  common.     Thus,  — 

Arria  gladium  dedit  marito  ut  se  interficeret,  Arria  gave  her  husband  a 

sword  to  kill  himself  {tha.t  he  might  kill  himself). 
Arria  gladium  dedit  marito  quo  se  interficeret,  Arria  gave  her  husband  a 

sword  to  kill  himself -WITH  (with  which  he  might,  etc.). 

b.  The  Gerund  and  Gerundive  constructions  of  purpose  are  usu- 
ally limited  to  short  expressions,  where  the  literal  translation  of  the 


§  319] 


CLAUSES  OF  RESULT. 


27s 


phrase,  though  not  the  English  idiom,  is  nevertheless  not  harsh  or 

^.  The   Supine  is  used  to  express   purpose   only  with    verbs   of 
>»oiwn,  and  in  a  few  idiomatic  expressions  (§  302) 

struttiL' (,'Sn;^"'^'''^  -''  '°  -^--  P-^-  '^  ^  -e  con. 

3-    Clauses  of  Result. 

NoTE.-The  use  of  the  Subjunctive  to  express  Result  comes  from  its 
use  m  Clauses  of  Characteristic. 

319.  (Rule  y6.)  A  clause  that  expresses  Result  is 
called  a  Consecutive  Clause. 

Consecutive  Clauses  take  the  Subjunctive  introduced  by 
ut,  so  that  (negative,  ut  non),  or  by  a  Relative  (pronoun  or 
adverb). 

They  may  be  divided  into  Pure,  Relative,  and  Substanl 
tive  (cf.  §  317). 

1.  Pure  Clauses  of  Result  are  introduced  by  ut  or  ut  non  Thev 
express  the  result  of  the  main  verb  in  the  form  of  a  modifying  clause 

2.  Relative  Clauses  of  Result  are  introduced  by  the  Relative  pro- 
noun qui.  or  by  the  Relative  adverbs  ubi,  unde,  quo,  etc  The 
antecedent  is  expressed  or  implied  in  the  main  clause. 

3.  Substantive  Clauses  of  Result  are  introduced  by  ut  or  ut  non. 
They  differ  from  Pure  consecutive  clauses  in  having  the  construction 
of  a  substantive.     (For  Substantive  Clauses  of  Result,  see  §  332  ) 

Examples  of  Pure  and  Relative  Clauses  of  Result  are  — 

tanta  vis  probitatis  est  ut  earn  in  hoste  dlligamus  (L^l.  29),  so  great  is 
the  power  of  goodness  that  we  love  it  even  in  an  enemy. 

nam  est  innocentia  affectio  talis  animi,  quae  noceat  nemini  (Tusc.  iii.  16) 
for  innocence  is  such  a  quality  of  mind  as  to  do  harm  to  no  one. 

nulla  est  celeritas  quae  possit  cum  animi  celeritate  contendere  (Tusc.  i. 
43),  there  is  no  swiftness  which  can  compare,  etc. 

Note.  — The  Relative  in  this  construction  is  equivalent  to  ut  witli  the 
corresponding  demonstrative.  Thus,  qm  =  ut  is  (etc.),  ubi  =  ut  ibi,  and 
so  on  (cf.  §  317.  note). 

Remark.  -  Clauses  of  Result  are  often  introduced  by  such  correlative 
words  as  tarn,  talis,  tantus,  ita,  sic,  adeo,  usque  eo,  which  belong  to  the 
mam  clause.  ^ 


276 


DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS, 


[§  319- 


a,  K  negative  result  is  regularly  expressed  by  ut  or  qui  with  non, 
nemo,  and  similar  negatives  (not  ne).     Thus,  — 

multls  gravibusque  vulneribus  confectus  ut  iam  se  sustinere  non  posset 
(B.  G.  ii.  25),  tised  up  with  many  severe  wounds  so  that  he  could  no 
longer  stand. 

nemo  est  tarn  senex  qui  se  annum  non  putet  posse  vivere  (Cat.  Maj. 
24),  nobody  is  so  old  as  not  to  think  that  he  can  live  a  year. 

Note.  — When  the  result  implies  an  effect  intended  (not  a  simple  pur- 
pose), ut  ne  or  ne  is  sometimes  used  as  being  less  positive  than  ut  non  :  as,  — 

[librum]  ita  corrigas  ne  mihi  noceat  (Fam.  vi.  7,  6),  correct  the  book  so  that 
it  may  not  hurt  me. 

b.  Frequently  a  clause  of  result  is  used  in  a  restrictive  sense,  and 
so  amounts  to  a  Proviso  (cf.  §  314)  :  as,— 

hoc  est  ita  utile  ut  ne  plane  illudamur  ab  accusatoribus  (Rose.  Am.  55), 
this  is  so  far  useful  that  we  are  not  utterly  mocked  by  the  accusers  {i.e. 
useful  only  on  this  condition,  that,  etc.). 

c.  The  subjunctive  with  the  Relative  quominus  (=  ut  eo  minus) 
may  be  used,  to  express  a  result,  after  words  of  hindering  or  refusing 
(cf.  §  317.  ^.  note  I):  as,— 

nee  aetas  impedit  quominus  agri  colend!  studia  teneamus  (Cat.  Maj.  60), 
nor  does  age  prevent  us  from  retaining  an  interest  in  tilling  the 
ground. 

d.  A  clause  of  result  is  introduced  by  quin  after  general  negatives, 
where  quin  is  equivalent  to  qui  (quae,  quod)  non ;  so  also  after 
negative  clauses  of  hindrance,  resistance,  doubt,  hesitation,  and  the 
like.     Thus,  — 

nihU  est  illorum  quin  [=quod  non]  ego  illi  dixerim  (Plant.  Bac.  1012), 

.  there  is  nothing  of  this  that  I  have  not  told  him. 
non  dubito  quin,  /  do  not  doubt  that  (cf.  the  Eng.,  /  do  not  doubt  but 
that). 

aegre  (vix)  abstinui  quin  .  .  .,  I  hardly  refrained  from,  etc. 
nihil  impedit  quin  .  .  .,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent,  etc. 

Remark.  — The  constructions  of  Purpose  and  Result  in  Latin  are 
precisely  alike  in  the  affirmative  (but  see  sequence,  §  287.  c\  but  in  the 
negative.  Purpose  takes  ne.  Result  ut  non,  etc.     Thus, 

custoditus  est  ne  effugeret,  he  was  guarded  in  order  that  he  might  not 
escape. 

custoditus  est  ut  non  effugeret,  he  was  guarded  so  that  he  did  not. 


§  320.] 


CLAUSES   OF  CHARACTERISTIC. 


277 


So  in  Purpose  clauses  ne  quis,  ne  quid,  ne  ullus,  ne  quo,  nequando, 
necubi,  etc.,  are  used ;  in  Result  clauses,  ut  nemo,  ut  nihil,  ut  nullus,  etc. 
Thus,  —  

cernere  ne  quis  eos  neu  quis  contingere  posset  (^n.  i.  413),  that  no  one 

might  see  them,  no  one  touch  them. 
ita  multi  sunt   imbecilli   senes  ut  nullum  offici  munus  exsequi  possint 

(Cat.  Maj.  35),  many  old  men  are  .w  feeble  that  they  cannot  perform 

their  duties  to  society. 
ne  quando  liberis  proscrlptorum  bona  patria  reddantur  (Rose.  Am.  145), 

lest  ever  the  patrimony  of  the  proscribed  should  he  restored  to  their  chil 

dren. 

The  clause  of  Result  is  sometimes  expressed  in  English  by  the  Infini- 
tive with  TO  or  so-AS-TO  or  an  equivalent :  as,— 

tam  longe  aberam  ut  non  viderem,  I  was  too  far  away  to  see  (so  far  that 
I  did  not  see  ;  cf.  §  320.  c). 


4.    Clauses  of  Characteristic. 

320.  (Rule  77.)  A  relative  clause  with  the  Subjunctive 
is  often  used  to  indicate  a  characteristic  of  the  antecedent, 
where  there  is  no  idea  of  Result. 

This  construction  is  especially  common  where  the  antecedent  is 
otherwise  undefined.     Thus,  — 

neque  enim  tu  is  es,  qui  nescias  (Fam.  v.  12,  (>),foryou  are  not  such  a 

one,  as  not  to  knoxv. 
multa   dicunt   quae  vix  intellegant  (Fin.  iv.  2),  they  say   many  things 

which  (such  as)  they  hardly  understand. 

a.  A  relative  clause  of  characteristic  is  used  after  general  expres- 
sions of  existence  or  non-existence,  including  questions  implying  a 
negative,  especially  with  sunt  qui,  there  are  [some]  who;  quia  est  qui, 
who  is  there  who  ?     Thus,  — 

sunt  qui  discessum  animi  a  corpore  putent  esse  mortem  (Tusc.  i.  18), 
there  are  some  who  think  that  the  departure  of  soul  from  body  consti- 
tutes death. 

erant  qui  Helvidium  miserarentur  (Ann.  xvi.  29),  there  were  some  who 
pitied  Helvidius.     [Cf.  est  cum  (§  322.  Rem.).] 

Note.— These  are  called  Relative  Clauses  with  an  Indefinite  Antecedent, 
but  are  to  be  distinguished  from  the  Indefinite  Relative  \n protasis  (see  §  316)! 


2/8 


DEPENDEiVT  COXSTRUCTIONS. 


[§  320. 


§3i»-] 


CAUSAL    CLAUSES. 


279 


b.  A  relative  clause  of  characteristic  may  follow  uuus  and  solue: 
as, — 

36IUS  es  cuius  in  Victoria  ceciderit  nemo  nisi  armatus  (neiot.  34),^^« 
are  the  only  man  at  ivhose  victory  no  one  has  fallen  unless  armed. 

c.  A  clause  of  result  or  characteristic,  with  quara  ut,  quam  qui, 
may  be  used  after  comparatives  :  as,  — 

maiores  arborCs  caedCbant  quam  quas  fcrrc  miles  posset  (I.iv.  xxxiii.  5), 
they  (ut  larger  trees  than  what  a  soldier  could  carry  (too  large  for  a 
uoldier  to  carry). 

CanachI  signa  rigidiSra  sunt  quam  ut  imitentur  vcritatem  (Hrut.  70),  the 
statues  0/  Canachus  arc  too  stij-  to  represent  nature  (sliffcr  than  that 
they  should). 

Note.  —  This  construction  corresponds  to  the  English  too  .  .  .  to, 

d.  A  relative  clause  of  characteristic  is  used   in  expressions  of 
Restriction  or  Proviso  (cf.  §  319.  ^):  as,— 

(juod  sciam,  so/dr  as  I  know. 

servus  est  nGmo,  qui  modo  tolerabill  condicione  sit  servitutis  (Cat.  iv.  16), 
there  is  not  a  slave,  at  least  in  any  tolerable  condition  of  slavery. 

A  A  relative  clause  cxi)ressing  cause  or  concession  takes  the  sub- 
jimciive  (§§  313.  //,  321.  ^):  a.s, — 

vi.  uni  simplicein  qui  nf.s  nihil  celet  (Or.  230),  oh  !  guileless  man,  who  hides 

nothing  from  us!     [Causal.] 
peccasse  mihi  videor  qui  a  te  disccsserim  (Fam.  xvi.  i),  I  seem  to  myselj 

to  have  done  wrong  because  I  have  left  you.     [Causal.  J 

NOTK.  —  In  this  use  the  relative  is  equivalent  to  cum  is,  etc.     It  is  often 
preceded  by  ut,  utpote,  or  quippe  :  as,  — 

ncc  consul,  ut  qui  id  ipsum  quacsisset,  moram  certamini  fecit  (Uv.  xlii. 
7),  nor  did  the  consul  delay  the  fght,  inasmuch  as  he  had  sought 
that  very  thing  (as  [being  one]  who  had  sought,  etc.). 

convivia  cum  patre  nOn  inibat.  quippe  qui  ne  in  oppidum  quidem  nisi 
perraro  veniret  (Rose.  Am.  52),  since  he  did  not  ezen  come,  etc. 

/   (RuLi-    7^.)    Dignua,  indignus,  aptus,  Idoneua    take  a  clause 
probably  of  result  with  a  relative  (or  rarely  with  ut)  :   as,— 

dl-na  in  quibus   elaborarent  (Tusc.  i.   i),  (things)  worth  spending  their 

toil  on  (worthy  on  which  they  should,  etc.). 
indignus  eras  qui  faceres  iniuriam,  it  was  beneath  you  to  do  a  wroiig  (you 

were  unworthy  who  should,  etc.). 
idoneus  qui  impetret  (Manil.  n),ftto  obtain. 


i/ 


Nqjp  — 'With  these  words  the  poets  often  use  the  Infinitive  :  as, — 
fons  rivo  dare  nomen  idoneus  (Hor.  Kp.  i.  16,  12),  a  source  fit  to  give  a 

name  to  a  stream. 
aetas  mollis  et  apta  regi  (Ov.),  a  time  of  life  soft  and  easy  to  be  guided. 

5.    Causal  Clauses.  '^ 

321.  (Ruij-:  79.)  The  Causal  Particles  quod,  quia,  and 
quoniam  take  the  Indicative,  when  the  reason  is  given  on  the 
authority  of  the  ivritcr  or  speaker ;  the  Subjunctive,  when 
the  reason  is  given  on  the  authority  of  another:  as, — 

1.  Indicative  :  — 

cum  tibi  agam  griitifis  quod  mc  vivere  coSgisti  (Alt.  iii.  3),  when  I  may 

thank  you  that  you  have  forced  me  to  live. 
quia  postrcma  aedificata  est  (V'err.  iv.  1 19),  because  it  was  built  last. 
quoniam  dc  utilitate  diximus,  dc  eiriciendi  ratione  (Or.  Part.  94),  since  we 

have  spoken  of  its  advantage,  let  us  speak  of  the  method  of  effecting  it. 

2.  Subjunctive  :  — 

mihi  gratulabare  quod  audisses  mc  mcam  pristinam  dignitatem  obtincre 
(Kam.  iv.  14,  \,)  you  congratulated  me  because  [as  you  said]  you  had 
heard,  etc. 
mea  m.iter  Irata  est  quia  non  rcdierim  (I'lau*.  Cist.  103),  my  mother  is 

angry  because  J  did  nU  return. 
Note  i.  — The  Subjunctive  in  this  use  depends  on  the  principle  of  In- 
termediate Clauses  (§  341.  d). 

Rkmark.  —  Non  quod,  non  quia,  non  quoniam,  introducing  a  reason  ex- 
pressly to  deny  it,  take  the  Subjunctive.  Non  quo  and  non  quin  introduce  a 
Result  clause,  but  with  nearly  the  same  meaning  (§  341.  d.  Rem.).    Thus, — 

pugilcs  ingcmiscunt,  non  quod  doleant,  sed  quia  omne  corj)us  intenditur 
(I'usc.  ii.  56),  boxers  groan  not  because  they  are  in  pain,  but  because,  etc. 

non  quia  philosophia  pcrcipi  non  posset  (id.  i.  l),  not  that  philosophy  can- 
not be  acquired. 

non  quoniam  hoc  sit  necesse  (Verr.  II.  i.  24),  not  that  this  is  necessary. 

non  quin  tnitendum  sit  (De  Or.  ii.  295),  not  that  pains  must  not  be  taken. 

a.  Causal  Clauses  introduced  by  quod,  etc.,  take  the  Subjunctive 
.  in  Indirect  Discourse,  like  any  other  dependent  clause  (see  §  336). 

b.  A  Relative,  when    used  to  express  cause,  regularly  takes  the 
Subjunctive  (sec  §  320.  e). 

c.  Cum  causal  takes  the  Subjunctive  (see  §  326). 

Note.  —  In  early  Latin  cum  causal  takes  the  Indicative  (§  326.  note  3). 


m 


il' 


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HI 


ii' 


^■ijaiM!! 


:ff.>-^ >'.*.*•  iiA j-» ".' ' 


28o 


DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS.         [§§  322,  323. 


6.    Relations  of  Time. 


322.  The  particles  ubi,  ut,  cum,  quando.  alone  or  with 
-cumqno,  may  i)c  used  as  IiidiMinitc  Relatives,  and  have 
the  constructions  of   protasis   (cf.  §   316).      Thus, 

cum  id  malum  esse  negas  (Tusc.  ii.  29),  -ujhen  you  (the  individual  dispu- 
tant) deny  it  fo  be  on  n-il.     [Present,  nothing  implied  (cf.  §  306).] 

(juod  profectO  cum  mC-  nulla  vis  cogeret,  facerc  nf.n  audOrem  (Phil.  v.  51), 
ivhich  J  7voiiui  surely  uol  ituiun  to  do,  ns  lontr  as  no  force  eompdUd 
me.     [Present,  contrary  to  fact :  cf.  §  3aS.J 

cum  videas  eos  .  .  .  dolore  ndn  frangl  (  Tu-sc.  ii.  66),  when  you  see  that 
those  are  not  hoken  by  fain,  etc.      [(k'neral  contlition  :  cf.  §  309.  a.\ 

id  ubi  dixisset,  haslam  in  fines  eorum  emittchat  (Liv.  i.  32,  13),  when  he 
had  said  this,  he  used  to  cast  the  sf<ear  into  their  territories.  [Re- 
peated action  :  see  §  309.  //.] 

Remark.  — Rarely  a  time  characterized  by  its  circumstances,  etc.  .  .  . 
So  tiie  phrases  est  cum,  fuit  cum,  etc.,  are  used  in  general  expressions  like 
est  qui,  sunt  qui  (§  320.  a) :  as, — 

ac  fuit  quidem  cum  mihi  quoque  initium  requiescendi  fore  iilstum  arbi- 
trarer  (De  Or.  i.  i),  and  there  was  a  time  when  I  thoui^ht  a  bei;inning 
of  rest  7vould  be  justifiable  on  my  part. 

323.    Temporal  clauses  have  two  uses  : 

1.  They  themselves   define  (with    reference    lo    the  time  of   the 
speaker)  the  lime  of  the  clause  011  which  they  depend. 

2.  They  describe  by  its  circumstances  the  time  of  the  main  clause, 
whic  h  is  defined  not  by  them,  but  by  tiic  main  clause  itself. 

Thus,  in  :  When  did  the  Emperor  hrederick  die?  He  died  while  the 
people  7vere  still  mournint:  the  death  of  his  father,  the  time  of  the  main 
clause,  he  died,  is  dofnutely  fixed  by  the  temporal  clause,  while  the  peoNe, 
etc.,  as  is  seen  by  the  fact  that  the  temporal  clause  answers  the  question, 
WHF.N  did  he  die?  Put  in  :  The  Emperor  Erederuk  died  while  the  people 
were  still  mournint^  the  death  of  his  father,  the  time  of  the  main  clause  is 
not  u-fined  hyih^  tenq>oral  clause,  but  is  regarded  as  sufficiently  definite  in 
itself  (or  from  the  context).  The  temporal  clause  is  added  to  describe  that 
time  by  the  circumstances  of  the  people's  grief. 

These  two  sorts  of  temporal  clauses  the  Romans  distinguished  by 
means  of  the  fnood,  invariably  using  the  Indicative  in  the  first  and  the 
Subjunctive  in  the  second.  They  commonly  also  used  the  particles 
and  the  tenses  in  accordance  with  this  division. 


§S  324, 325-] 


RELATIONS  OE   TIME. 


281 


1 1 


I.    POSTQUAM,  UBI,  ETC. 

824.  The  particles  postquam  (posteaquam),  ubi,  ut  (ut  pri- 
mum,  ut  Bomol),  Bimul  atquo  (niniul  ac,  or  simul)  take  the  Intlic- 

ative  (usually  in  the  perfect  or  the  histoncal present) :  as,  — 

milites  postquam  victoriam  adept!  sunt,  nihil  reliqui  victis  fecere  (Sail. 

Cat.  II),  when  the  armies  had  won  the  victory,  they  left  nothing  to 

the  faiKjuishcd. 
ubi  omnes  idem  sentire  intcllexit  (H.  (i.  iii.  23),  when  he  understood  that 

all  agreed  (thought  the  same  thing), 
simul  ac  perscnsit  (.l-.n.  iv.  90),  as  soon  as  he  perceived. 

a.  These  particles  less  commonly  take  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect 
indicative.  The  Imperfect  in  this  case  denotes  a  state  of  things  ;  the 
Pluperfect,  an  action  completed  in  past  time.     Thus,  — 

P.  Africanus  posteaquam  bis  consul  et  censor  fuerat  (Div.  in  Cacc.  69), 
when  Africanus  had  been  (/>.  had  the  dignity  of  having  been)  twice 
consul  and  censor. 
haec  iuventutem,  ubi  familiares  opes  defecerant,  ad  facinora  incendcbant 
(Sail.  Cat.  13),  when  their  inherited  resources  had  given  out. 

b.  Rarely  .some  of  these  particles  take  the  subjunctive  :  as,  — 

posteaquam  maximas  aedificasset  omassetque  classes  (Manil.  9),  having 
built  and  equipped  mighty  flats  (after  he  had,  etc.).  [lUit  the  more 
approved  editions  have  postea  cum.] 

II.     CU.\T  TKMI'ORAL. 

325.  (Rule  8o.)  Cum  (quom)  TEMi'OKAL,  meaning  T£///r;/, 
takes  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  in  the  Subjunctive, 
other  tenses  in  the  Indicative.     'Thus, — 

cum  servIlT  bello  premeretur  (.Manil.  30),  when  she  (Italy)  was  under  the 

load  of  the  Senile  War. 
cum  id  nuntiiltum  esuct,  maturat  (P.  (i.  i.  -j),  when  this  had  been  reported 

he  made  (makes)  haste. 
cum  occiditur  Sex.  Roscius,  ibidem  fueruntservi  (Rose.  Am.  120),  when 

Koscius  was  slain,  the  slaves  were  on  the  spot. 

[For  examples  with  the  Future,  see  c,  below.] 

Note.  —  The  Present  takes  the  Indicative,  because  present  time  is  gen- 
erally, from  its  very  nature,  defined  in  the  mind  ;  and  it  is  only  when 
the  circumstances  are  described  as  causal  or  adversative  (see  below,  §  326), 


MA 
f  I 


282 


DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS. 


[§  326. 


§  2>^1'\ 


RELATIONS  OF  TIME. 


that  the  Subjunctive  is  used.  The  Perfect  takes  the  Indicative  as  the 
tense  of  narration,  as  with  postquam,  etc.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect 
are,  from  their  nature,  better  fitted  to  describe  than  to  define  the  time. 

a.  Cum  temporal  sometimes  takes  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect 
Indicative  to  indicate  a  definite  past  time :  as, — 

quem  quidem  cum  ex  urbe  pellebam,  hoc  providebam  animo  (Cat.  iii.  16), 
when  I  was  trying  to  force  him  (conative  imperfect)  from  the  city,  I 
tooked  forward  to  this. 

tum  cumin  Asia  res  magnas  permultl  amiserant  (Manil.  19), <z/  that  time, 
when  many  had  tost  great  fortttnes  in  Asia. 

b.  When  the  clauses  are  inverted,  so  that  the  logical  temporal 
clause  becomes  the  main  clause,  and  the  main  clause  becomes  the 
temporal  clause,  the  Indicative  must  be  used  with  cum :  as,  — 

hoc  facere  noctu  apparabant,  cum  matres  familiae  repente  in  publicum 
procurrerunt  (B.  G.  vii.  26),  they  were  preparing  to  do  this  by  nighty 
when  the  women  suddenly  ran  out  into  the  streets. 

c.  To  denote  future  time  cum  takes  the  Future  or  Future  Perfect 
Indicative  :  as,  — 

longum  illud  tempus  cum  non  ero  (Att.  xii.  18),  that  long  time  when  I 

shall  be  no  more. 
cum  veneris,  cognosces  (Fam.  v.  7),  when  you  come  (shall  have  come) 

you  will  find  out. 

Remark.  —  Rarely  a  future  time  is  characterized  and  takes  the  Sub- 
junctive. 

III.      CUM  CAUSAL  OR  CONCESSIVE. 

326.  (Rule  81.)  Cum  CAUSAL  or  CONCESSIVE  takes  the 
Subjunctive  :  as, — 

cum  prlmi  drdines  .  .  .  concidissent,  tamen  acerrime  reliquT  resistebant 
(B.  G.  vii.  61),  though  the  first  ranks  had  fallen,  still  the  others  re- 
sisted rigorously.     [Concessive.] 

Note  i.  —  Cum  in  these  uses  is  often  emphasized  by  ut,  utpote,  quippe, 
praesertim :  as,  — 

nee  reprehend©  :  quippe  cum  ipse  istam  reprehensionem  non  fugerim 
(Att.  X.  3),  I  find  no  fault:  since  I  myself  did  not  escape  that  blame. 

Note  2.  —  These  causal  and  concessive  relations  are  merely  variations 
of  the  idea  of  time.  The  attendant  circumstances  are  regarded  as  the  cause 
of  the  action,  or  as  tending  to  hinder  it  (cf.  qui   causal  and  concessive). 


2^1 


I 


Note  3.  —  In  early  Latin  cum  (quom)  causal  and  concessive  usually  takes 
the  Indicative.     So  sometimes  in  classical  Latin  :  as,  — 

quom  tua  res  distrahitur,  utinam  videam  (Plant.  Trin.  573),  since  your 
property  is  torn  in  pieces,  oh  !  that  I  may  see,  etc.     [Cf .  §  3 1 3.  d.  note.] 

Remark.  — Cum  causal  may  usually  be  translated  hy  since ;  cum  con- 
cessive by  although  or  while. 

a.  Cum  in  the  sense  of  quod,  on  the  ground  that,  frequenUy  takes 
the  Indicative  :  as,  — 

gratulor  tibi  cum  tantum  vales  apud  Dolabellam  (Fam.  ix.  14,  3),  /  con- 
gratulate you  that  you  are  so  strong  with  Dolabella. 

b.  Cum  .  .  .  tum,  signifying  both  .  .  .  and,  usually  takes  the 
Indicative  ;  but  when  cum  approaches  the  sense  of  whi/e  or  thouj^h, 
it  may  have  the  Subjunctive  (§  326).     Thus, 

cum  multa  non  probo,  tum  illud  in  primis  (Fin.  i.  18),  while  there  are  many 
things  I  do  not  approve,  there  is  this  in  chief     But 

cum  res  tota  ficta  sit  pueriliter,  tum  ne  efficit  quidem  quod  vult  (id.  19), 
while  the  whole  thing  is  childishly  got  up,  he  does  not  even  make  his 
point  (accomplish  what  he  wishes). 

IV.     ANTEQUAM  AND   PRIUSQUAM. 

327.    Ant^quam  and  priusquam,  before,  have  in  narration 
the  same  construction  as  cum  temporal  (§  325):  as, 

antequam  tuas  legi  litteras  (Att  ii.  7),  before  I  read  your  letter. 

neque  ante  dimisit  eum  quam  fidem  dedit  adulescens  (Liv.  xxxix.  10),  she 

did  not  let  the  young  man  go  till  he  pledged  his  faith. 
antequam  homines  nefaril  de  meo  adventu  audire  potuissent,  in  Mace- 

doniam  perrexi  (Plane.  98),  before  those  evil  men  could  learn  of  my 

coming,  I  arrived  in  Macedonia. 

Note.  —  The  idea  of  purpose  (usually  corresponding  to  could  or  should 
in  English)  regularly  requires  the   subjunctive:  as,— 

nunquam  prius  discessit  quam  ad  finem  sermd  esset  perductus,  i.e.  he 
waited  for  the  conversation  to  be  finished. 

a.  Antequam  and  priusquam,  when  referring  to  future  time,  take 
the  Present  or  Future  Perfect  Indicative  ;  rarely  the  Present  Sub- 
junctive:  as, — 

priusquam  de  ceteris  rebus  responded,  de  amTcitia  pauca  dicam  (Phil.  ii. 

3),  before  I  reply  to  the  rest,  I  will  say  a  little  on  friendship. 
antequam  veniat  litteras  mlttet  (Ag.  ii.  53),  before  he  comes,  he  will  send 

a  letUr. 


284 


DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS. 


[§  328. 


<^.  In  a  few  cases  the  Subjunctive  of  the  indefinite  second  person 
is  found  with  autequam  and  priuaquam  (cf.  §  309  a)  :  as,  — 

in  omnibus  negotiis  priusquam  aggrediare,  adhibenda  est  praeparatio 
diligens  (Off.  r,  73),  in  all  undertakings^  before  you  proceed  to  action, 
careful  preparation  must  be  used. 


V.     DUM,  DON  EC,  AND  QUOAD. 

328.  Dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  implying  purpose y  doubt y  or 
expectation,  take  the  Subjunctive,  otherwise  the  Indica- 
tive. 

1.  Subjunctive:  as, — 

exspectas  fortasse  dum  dicat  (Tusc.  ii.  \'j),you  are  waiting  perhaps  for 

him  to  say  (till  he  say). 
Aenean  morando  sustinuit  dum  genitor  protectus  abiret  (^n.  x.  800),  he 

kept  ^neas  in  check  till  his  father  could  get  away  in  safety. 
Epamlnondas  exercebatur  plurimum  luctando  ad  eum  finem  quoad  stans 

complecti  posset  atque  contendere  (Nep.  Epam.  2),  Epaminondas 

trained  himself  in  wrestling  so  far  as  to  be  able  to  grapple  standing 

and  fight  (in  that  way). 

2.  Indicative  (cf.  «,  below)  :  as, —  . 

hoc  feci  dum  licuit,  intermisi  quoad  non  licuit  (Phil.  iii.  33),  I  did  this  so 

long  as  it  was  allowed,  I  discontinued  it  so  long  as  it  was  not. 
quoad  potuit  restitit  (Cat.  Maj.  11),  he  resisted  as  long  as  he  could. 

Note  i.  —  Quamdiu  takes  the  Indicative  only  :  as, — 

se  oppid5  tarn  diu  tenuit  quamdiu  in  prdvincia  ParthI  fuerunt  (Fam.  xii. 
i^,  he  kept  himself  within  the  town  so  long  as  the  Parthians  were  in 
the  province. 

Note  2.  —  For  dum  and  dummodo  introducing  a  proviso,  see  §  314. 

a.  Dum  in  the  sense  of  while  usually  takes  the  Present  Indicative 
to  indicate  a  continued  action  in  past  time,  if  that  time  is  not  con- 
trasted with  any  other  (§  276  e.  and  note)  :  as, — 

dum  haec  geruntur    (B.  G.  i.  46),  while  this  was  going  on. 

Remark.  —  With  all  temporal  particles  the  Subjunctive  is  often  found 
depending  on  some  other  principle  of  construction.  (See  Intermediate 
Clauses  below,  §§  340  ff.) 


§§  329»  330-] 


INFINITIVE    CLAUSES. 


II.     SUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES. 


285 


329.  A  clause  used  as  a  noun  is  called  a  Substantive 
Clause. 

A  Substantive  Clause  may  be  used  as  the  Subject  or 
Object  of  a  verb,  as  an  Appositive  or  as  a  Predicate  Nom- 
inative (or  Accusative). 

Note.  —  Many  ideas  which  in  English  take  the  form  of  an  abstract 
noun  may  be  rendered  by  a  substantive  clause  in  Latin.  Thus,  he  de- 
manded an  investigation,  may  be  postulabat  ut  quaestio  haberetur.  The 
common  English  expression  for  with  the  infinitive  also  corresponds  to  a 
Latin  substantive  clause  :  as,  //  remains  for  me  to  speak  of  the  piratic  war, 
relicum  est  ut  de  bello  dicam  plratico. 

Remark.  —  When  a  Substantive  Clause  is  used  as  Subject,  the  verb 
to  which  it  is  subject  is  called  impersonal,  and  the  sign  of  the  construction 
in  English  is  the  so-called  expletive  it. 


Substantive  Clauses  are  classified  as  follows 
Infinitive  Clauses  : 


(  a.  Infinitive  clause  as  Subject  (§  270). 
(  b.  Infinitive  clause  as  Object  (§  330.  B). 


(  a.  Of  Purpose  (command,  wish,  fear)  (§  331). 
}  b.  Of  Result  (happen,  effect,  hinder)  (§  332). 


2.  Subjunctive  Clauses: 

(ut,     ne,   quo,    quin, 
qudminus). 

3.  Indicative  Clause  with  quod:  Fact,  Specification,  Feeling. 

4.  Indirect  Questions  :  Subjunctive,  introduced  by  Interrogative  Word. 

I.    Infinitive  Clauses. 

330.  A.  The  Infinitive  with  Subject- Accusative  may 
be  used  as  the  subject  of  sum  and  of  many  impersonal  verbs 
(see  §  270). 

B.  The  Infinitive  with  Subject- Accusative  is  used  as  the 

object  — 

I .  Of  all  verbs  and  expressions  of  knowing,  thinking,  telling,  and 
perceiving  (^Indirect  Discourse^  (§  272). 

me  spero  liberatum  [esse]  metu  (Tusc.  ii.  67),  /  trust  I  have  been  freed 
from  fear. 


286 


DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS. 


[§  330- 


2.  Of  iubeo  and  veto,  and  rarely  of  other  verbs  of  commanding, 
requesting,  admonishing,  and  the  like  (§  331.  a).     Thus, — 

vetuere  [bona]  reddi,  vetuere  in  publicum  redigi  (Liv.  ii.  5),  they  forbade 
the  return  of  the  goods  (that  they  be  returned),  etc. 

Labienum  mgum  mentis  adscendere  iubet  (B.  G.  i.  21),  he  orders  Labienus 
to  ascend  the  ridge  of  the  hill. 

3.  Sometimes  of  verbs  of  wishing  (§  33i-  ^)  :  as, — 

iudicem  me  esse  n5n  doctorem  volo  (Or.  117),  I  wish  to  be  a  judge,  not  a 
teacher. 

Remark.  —  The  Infinitive  with  Subject- Accusative,  though  not  strictly 
a  Clause,  is  equivalent  to  one,  and  may  be  treated  as  such. 

a.  If  the  main  verb  is  changed  to  the  Passive,  —  ^ 

1 .  The  subject  of  the  infinitive  becomes  nominative,  and  the  in- 
finitive is  retained  (^Personal  Construction)  :  as,  — 

mons  dicitur  ab  hostibus  teneri,  the  hill  is  said  to  be  held  by  the  enemy. 
Labienus  iugum  montis  adscendere  iubetur,  Labienus  is  ordered  to  ascend 
the  ridge  of  the  hill. 

2.  The  passive  is  used  impersonally,  and  the  clause  retained  as 
its  subject  (^Impersonal  Construction)  :  — 

dicitur  montem  ab  hostibus  teneri,  it  is  said  that  the  hill  is  held  by  the 
enemy. 

b.  I.  Verbs  of  saying,  thinking,  etc.,  take  in  the  Passive  either 
the  Personal  or  the  Impersonal  construction.  But  the  Personal  is 
more  common  and  is  regular  with  the  tenses  of  incomplete  action. 
Thus,  — 

beate  vTxisse  videor  (Lael.  15),  I  seem  to  have  lived  happily. 
Epaminondas   fidibus   praeclare  cecinisse   dicitur  (Tusc.  i.  4),   Epami- 
nondas  is  said  to  have  played  excellently  on  the  lyre. 

2.  Iubeo  and  veto  always  take  the  personal  construction  :  as, — 

iussus  es  renuntiari  cdnsul  (Phil.  ii.  'jg),you  were  under  orders  to  be  de- 
clared consul. 

NolanT  muros  portasque  adire  vetiti  sunt  (Liv.  xxiii.  \6),the  men  of  Nola 
were  forbidden  to  go  to  visit  the  walls  and  gates. 

c.  In  the  compound  tenses  of  verbs  of  saying,  etc.,  the  impersonal 
construction  is  more  common,  and  with  the  gerundive  is  regular  : 
as,  — 


§  ZZ^'I 


CLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE. 


287 


traditum  est  etiam  Homerum  caecum  fuisse  (Tusc.  v.  114),  //  is  a  tra- 
dition, too,  that  Homer  was  blind. 

ubi  tyrannus  est,  ibi  n5n  vitiosam,  sed  dicendum  est  plane  nullam  esse 
rempublicam  (Rep.  iii.  43),  where  there  is  a  tyrant,  it  must  be  said, 
not  that  the  Commonwealth  is  evil,  but  that  it  does  not  exist  at  all. 

d.  The  poets  and  later  writers  extend  the  personal  use  of  the 
passive  to  verbs  which  are  not  properly  verba  sentiendi,  etc.  :  as, 

colligor  dominae  placuisse  (Ov.  Am.  ii.  6,  61),  it  is  gathered  [from  this 
memorial]  that  I  pleased  my  mistress. 

e.  The  Infinitive  with  a  subject  may  depend  on  any  word  imply- 
ing speech  or  thought,  though  not  strictly  a  verb  of  saying,  etc. 

/.  Verbs  of  promising,  hoping,  expecting,  threatening,  swearing, 
and  the  like,  regularly  take  the  construction  of  Indirect  Discourse, 
contrary  to  the  English  idiom  :  as,  — 

minatur  sese  abire  (Plant.  Asin.  604),  he  threatens  to  go  away.    [Direct : 

abeo,  /  am  going  away.] 
ex  quibus  sperant  se  maximum  fructum  esse  captures  (Lael.  79),  from 

which  they  hope  to  gain  the^  utmost  advantage.     [Direct  ;  capiemus.] 

Note.  —  These  verbs,  however,  often  take  a  simple  Complementary  In- 
finitive. Thus,  —  pollicentur  obsides  dare  (B.  G.  iv.  21),  they  promise  to 
give  hostages. 


2.    Clauses  of  Purpose. 

Note.  —  Clauses  of  Purpose  may  be  used  substantively  (i)  as  the 
Object  of  verbs  of  admonishing,  etc.  (§  331)  ;  (2)  as  the  Subject  of  these 
same  verbs  in  the  passive  (§  331.  h),  and  of  impersonal  verbs  and  verbal 
phrases  (§  331.  0  ;  (3)  in  apposition  with  a  substantive,  or  as  predicate 
nominative,  etc. 

331.  Substantive  Clauses  of  Purpose  with  ut  (negative 
ne)  are  used  as  the  object  of  all  verbs  denoting  an  action 
directed  toward  the  future} 

Such  are,  verbs  meaning  to  admonish,  ask,  bargain,  command, 
decree,  determine, pertnit,  persuade,  resolve,  urge,  and  wish.    Thus, — 

1  Such  verbs  or  verbal  phrases  are  id  ago,  ad  id  venio,  caveo  (ne),  censeo, 
cogo,  concede,  constituo,  euro,  decemo,  edico,  flagito,  hortor,  impero,  insto, 
mando,  moneo,  negotium  do,  operam  do,  oro,  persuaded,  peto,  postul5,  prae- 
V  cipio,  precor,  prdnuntid,  qaaero,  rogo,  seised,  timed,  video,  volo.  "^ 

) 


288 


DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS. 


\.%:>z^- 


his  ut  conquirerent  imperavit  (B.  G.  i.  28),  he  ordered  them  to  search. 
persuadet  Castico  ut  regnum  occuparet  (B.  G.  i.  3),  he  persuades  Casticus 
to  usurp  royal  power. 

a.  lubeo,  order ^  and  veXJo,  forbid,  take  the  Infinitive  with  Subject 
Accusative  (§  330.  B.  2)  :  as,  — 

liberds  ad  se  adduci  iussit  (B.  G.  ii.  5),  he  ordered  the  children  to  be 
brought  to  him. 

ab  opera  legates  discedere  vetuerat  (id.  20),  he  had  forbidden  the  lieuten- 
ants to  leave  the  work. 

Note  i.  —  Other  verbs  of  commanding,  etc.,  may  take  the  Infinitive: 
as, — 

haec  facere  imperatum  est,  orders  were  given  to  do  this. 

res  monet  cavere  (Sail.  Cat.  52),  the  occasion  warns  us  to  be  on  our  guard. 

b.  Verbs  of  wishing  take  either  the  Subjunctive  or  the  Infinitive. 
The  Infinitive  is  more  common  when  the  subject  remains  the  same  ; 
the  Subjunctive,  when  it  changes.     Thus,  — 

1 .  Subject  of  dependent  verb  same  as  that  of  main  verb  :  — 

quos  non  tam  ulcisci  studeo  quam  sanare  (Cat.  ii.  17),  whom  I  do  not  care 
so  much  to  punish  as  to  cure. 

2.  Subject  of  dependent  verb  different  from  that  of  main  verb  :  — 

cupio  ut  impetret  (Plaut.  Capt,  102),  I  wish  he  may  get  it. 
mallem  Cerberum  metueres  (Tusc.  i.    12),   /  would  rather  you  feared 
Cerberus. 

Note. — V0I6  and  cupio,  however,  tend  to  take  the  Accusative  and  In- 
finitive rather  than  the  Subjunctive,  even  when  the  subject  changes. 
When  it  remains  the  same,  the  subject  accusative  is  rarely  found.     Thus,  — 

iudicem  me  esse,  non  doctorem  volo  (Or.  117),  /  wish  to  be  a  judge,  not 
a  teacher. 

cupi5  me  esse  clementem  (Cat.  i.  4),  /  desire  to  be  merciful.  [But  regu- 
larly, cupio  esse  clemens  (see  §  271.  a).'] 

c.  Verbs  of  permitting  take  either  the  Subjunctive  or  the  Infini- 
tive. Patior  takes  regularly  the  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative  ; 
so  often  sino.     Thus,  — 

permlsit  ut  partes  faceret  (De  Or.  ii.  -^66), permitted  him  to  make  divisions. 
vinum  importari  n5n  sinunt  (B.  G.  iv.  2),  they  do  not  allow  wine  to  be 
imported. 

d.  Verbs  of  determining,  decreeing,  resolving,  bargaining  take 
either  the  Subjunctive  or  the  Infinitive  :  as, — 


§331] 


CLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE. 


289 


cottstkuerant  ut  L.  Bestia  quereretur  (Sail.  Cat.  43),  they  had  determined 

that  Lucius  Bestia  should  complain. 
proelio  supersedere  statuit  (B.  G.  ii.  8),  he  determined  to  refuse  battle. 

Note  i.  —  Different  verbs  of  these  classes  with  the  same  meaning  vary 
in  their  construction.  For  verbs  of  bargaining  with  the  Gerundive,  see 
§  294.  d. 

Note  2. —  Verbs  of  decreeing  and  voting  often  take  the  Infinitive  of  the 
Second  Periphrastic  conjugation  :  as,  — 

Regulus  captivos  reddendos  [esse]  n5n  censuit  (Off.  i.  39),  Regulus  voted 
that  the  captives  should  not  be  returned.  [He  said,  in  giving  his 
formal  opinion :  captivi  non  reddendi  sunt.] 

e.  I.  Verbs  of  caution  and  effort  take  the  Subjunctive  with  ut. 
But  Conor,  try,  usually  takes  the  Complementary  Infinitive  as, — 

cura  ut  quam  primum  intellegam  (Fam.  xiii.  10),  let  me  know  as  soon  as 

possible  (take  care  that  I  may  understand), 
dant  operam  ut  habeant  (Sail.  Cat.  41),  they  take  pains  to  have  (give  their 

attention  that,  etc.). 
si  transire  conarentur  (B.  G.  i.  8),  if  they  should  try  to  cross. 

Note.  —  C5nor  si  also  occurs  (cf.  miror  si,  etc.,  §  Tf^fT^.  b.  Rem.). 

2.  Verbs  denoting  an  effort  to  hinder  take  either  (i)  a  Subjunctive 
clause  with  quominus  or  ne,  or  (2)  the  Infinitive  :  as,  — 

non  deterret  sapientem  mors  qudminus  .  .  .  (Tusc.  i.  91),  death  does  not 
prevent  the  wise  man  from,  etc. 

ne  facerem  impedivit  (Fat.  i), prevented  tne  from  doing. 

prohibet  accedere  (Caec.  46),  prevents  him  from  approaching  (to  ap- 
proach). 

Note.  —  For  verbs  of  hindering  negatived  {not  to  hinder),  see  §  332.  g. 

f.  Verbs  of  fearing  take  the  Subjunctive,  with  ne  affirmative  and 
ne  non  or  ut  negative.     Thus,  — 

timeo  ne  Verres  fecerit  (Verr.  v.  3),  I  fear  that  Verres  has  done,  etc. 
vereor  ut  tibi  possim  concedere  (De  Or.  i.  Z^-,  L  far  [that]  I  cannot 
grant  you. 

Note.  —  In  this  use  ne  is  commonly  to  be  translated  by  that  or  lest,  ut 
and  ne  non  by  that  not. 

Remark.  —  With  some  verbs  of  the  above  classes  ut  is  often  omitted. 
So  generally  after  verbs  of  wishing,  necessity,  permission,  after  die,  fac, 
and  often  in  Indirect  Discourse  after  verbs  of  commanding,  etc.:  as, — 


290 


DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS. 


\.%ZZ' 


V0I6  ames  (Att.  ii.  10),  I  wish  you  to  love,  etc. 
me  ipsum  ames  oportet  (Fin.  ii.  85),  you  ought  to  love  me. 
Mnesthea  vocat,  classem  aptent  socii  (/En.  iv.  289),  he  calls  Mnestheus 
[and  orders  that]  his  comrades  should  make  ready  the  fleet  (cf.  §  339). 

Note.  —  Similarly  ne  is  omitted  after  cave  in  Prohibitions  (cf.  §  269.  a). 

g.  With  any  verbs  of  the  above  classes  the  poets  may  use  the 
Infinitive  instead  of  an  object  clause  :  as,  — 

hortamur  fari  (^n.  ii.  74),  we  urge  [him]  to  speak. 
ne  quaere  doceri  (id.  vi.  614);  seek  not  to  be  told. 

h.  A  substantive  clause  of  Purpose  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb 
becomes  the  subject  when  that  verb  is  put  in  the  passive.     Thus,  — 

imperatum  est  ut  iter  facerent,  it  was  ordered  that  they  should  march. 
permlssum  est  ut  irent,  permission  was  given  that  they  should  go. 

i.  The  impersonals  licet  and  oportet  take  as  subject  either  a 
Substantive  clause  of  Purpose  or  an  Infinitive  with  or  without  subject- 
accusative.     Thus,  — 

licet  me  ire,  it  is  allowed  me  to  go. 

queramur  licet  (Caec.  41),  we  are  allotved  to  complain. 

Note  i.  —  The  Subjunctive  with  oportet  omits  ut,  except  in  later  writers 

•  (see  §  331./.  Rem.).  ^4rAs^^^>»ir-^  ^^'^ifa^  Ultfav^^^  ^ ^ ^^'^^A 

Note  2.  — Licet  may  take  the  Subjunctive,  usually  without  ut,  to  denote  ^  1 

concession  (see  §  313.  b).  _^^^jP^m/^^^  • 

Note  3.  —  Licet  may  take  (i)  the  Subjunctive  ;  (2)  the  Simple  Infini- 
tive; (3)  the  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative  ;  or  (4)  the  Dative  and  the 
Infinitive.     Thus,  I  may  go  is  licet  earn,  licet  ire,  licet  me  ire,  or  licet  mihi  ire. 

3.    Clauses  of  Result. 

Note.  —  Clauses  of  Result  may  be  used  substantively,  (i)  as  the  object 
of  facio,  etc.  (§  332)  ;  (2)  as  the  subject  of  these  same  verbs  in  the  passive, 
as  well  as  of  other  verbs  and  verbal  phrases  (§  332.  a,  d)  ;  (3)  in  apposition 
with  another  substantive,  or  as  predicate  nominative,  etc.  (see  §  332./). 

332.  Substantive  Clauses  of  Result  with  ut  (negative 
ut  non)  are  used  as  the  object  of  verbs  denoting  the  accom- 
plishment of  an  effort. 

Such  are  especially  facio  and  its  compounds  (efficio,  coniicio, 
etc.).     Thus,  — 


§  zvA 


CLAUSES  OF  RESULT. 


291 


efficiam  ut  intellegatis  (Cluent.  7),  I  will  make  you  understand  (lit.  effect 
that  you,  etc.).     [So  faciam  ut  intellegatis  (id.  4).] 

commeatus  ut  portarl  posset  efficiebat  (B.  G.  ii.  5),  made  it  possible  that 
supplies  could  be  brought. 

a.  Substantive  Clauses  of  Result  are  used  as  the  Subject  — 

1 .  Of  passive  verbs  denoting  the  accomplishment  of  an  effort : 
as, — 

impetratum  est  ut  in  senatu  recitarentur  (litterae)  (B.  C.  i.  i),  they  suc- 
ceeded in  having  the  letter  read  in  the  senate  (it  was  brought  about 
that,  etc.). 

2.  Of  Impersonals  meaning  it  happens,  it  remains,  it  follows,  it 
is  necessary,  it  is  added,  and  the  like  :  as,  — 

accidit  ut  esset  luna  plena  (B.  G.  iv.  29),  it  happened  to  be  full  moon  (it 
happened  that  it  was,  etc.).     [Here  ut  esset  is  subject  of  accidit] 

reliqua  est  quarta  virtus  ut  sit  ipsa- f rugalitas  (Tusc.  iii.  17),  it  remains 
that  the  fourth  virtue  is  thrift.     [So  also  restat.] 

b.  A  result  clause,  with  or  without  ut,  frequently  follows  quam, 
after  a  comparative  (but  see  §  336.  c.  note  2)  :  as,  — 

perpessus  est  omnia  potius  quam  indicaret  (Tusc.  ii.  52),  he  endured  ali 
rather  than  betray,  etc. 

c.  A  result  clause,  with  or  without  ut,  is  often  used  elliptically,  in 
exclamatory  questions.  The  question  may  be  introduced  by  the  inter- 
rogative -ne.     Thus,  — 

quamquam  quid  loquor  ?  te  ut  uUa  res  frangat  (Cat.  i.  22),^^/  why  do  I 

speak  ?  [the  idea]  that  anything  should  bend  you! 
egone  ut  te  interpellem  (Tusc.  ii.  42),  what,  I  interrupt  you? 
ego  te  videre  noluerim  (Q.  Fr.  i.  3,  i),  I  unwilling  to  see  you  ? 

Remark.  —  The  Infinitive,  in  exclamations  (§  274),  usually  refers  to 
something  actually  occurring  ;  the  Subjunctive,  to  something  contemplated. 

d.  The  phrase  tantum  abest,  //  is  so  far  [from  being  the  case], 
regularly  takes  two  clauses  of  result  with  ut ;  one  is  substantive,  the 
subject  of  abest;  the  other  is  adverbial,  correlative  with  tantum. 
Thus,  — 

tantum  abest  ut  nostra  miremur,  ut  usque  eo  difficiles  ac  mordsi  simus, 
ut  n5bis  non  satisfaciat  ipse  Demosthenes  (Or.  104),  so  far  from 
admiring  my  own  works,  I  am  difficult  and  captious  to  that  degree, 
that  not  Demosthenes  himself  satisfies  me.  [Here  the  first  ut-clause 
is  the  subject  of  abest  (§  332.  a) ;  the  second,  a  result  clause,  after 
tantum  (§  319) ;  and  the  third,  after  usque  eo.] 


292 


DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS. 


[§  ZV'- 


e.  The  expressions  facere  ut,  committere  ut,  with  the  subjunctive, 
often  form  a  periphrasis  for  the  simple  verb  :  as,  — 

in  Vitus  feci  ut  Flaminium  e  senatu  eicerem  (Cat.  Maj.  42),  it  was  with 
reluctance  that  I  expelled  Flaminins  from  the  senate. 

f.  Rarely,  a  thought  or  an  idea  is  considered  as  a  result,  and  is 
expressed  by  the  subjunctive  with  ut  instead  of  the  accusative  and 
infinitive.  (§  336.  i).  In  this  case  a  demonstrative  usually  precedes  : 
as,  — 

praeclarum  illud  est,  ut  eos  .  .  .  amemus  (Tusc.  iii.  73),  this  is  a  noble 

thing,  that  we  should  love,  etc. 
verisimile  n5n  est  ut  ille  anteponeret  (Verr.  iv.  11),  it  is  not  likely   that 

he  preferred. 

g.  A  Relative  clause  of  Result  with  quin  is  used  with  verbs  or 
other  expressions  of  hindering  and  the  like  when  these  are  negatived. 
Thus,  — 

facere  non  possum  quin  .   .  .  (Att.  xii.  27),  I  cannot  avoid,  etc. 
ut  nulla  re  impedirer  quin  (Att.  iv.  2,  6),   that  I  might   be  hindered  by 
nothing  from,  etc. 

Note  i. —  The  negative  may  be  expressed  (as  in  the  examples  above) 
or  merely  implied  (as  in  quia  impedit  quin  earn,  who  {i.e.  nobody)  hinders 
me  from  going  ? ) . 

Remark.  —  This  usage  is  found  especially  with  the  phrase  non  dubitd, 
/  do  not  doubt,  and  similar  expressions  :  as,  — 

non  dubitabat  quin  ei  crederemus  (Att.  vi.  2,  3),  he  did  not  doubt  that  we 
beliez'ed  him. 

Note  2.  — Non  dubito,  in  the  sense  of  /  do  not  hesitate,  commonly  takes 
the  Infinitive,  but  sometimes  quin  with  the  subjunctive.     Thus,  — 

nee  dubitare  ilium  appellate  sapientem  (Lael.  i),  and  not  to  hesitate  to 

call  him  a  sage. 
dubitandum  non  existimavit  quin  proficisceretnr  (B.  G.  ii.  2),  he  did  not 

think  he  ought  to  hesitate  to  set  out. 

h.  Some  verbs  and  expressions  may  be  used  either  as  verbs  of 
saying  or  as  verbs  of  commanding  or  effecting.  Hence  they  are  vari- 
ously construed.     Thus,  — 

res  ipsa  monebat  tempus  esse  (Att.  x.  8),  the  thing  itself  warned  that  it 
was  time.     [Cf.  monere  ut,  warn  to  do  something.] 


§  333'] 


INDICATIVE    WITH  ''QUODr 


293 


hoc  volunt  persuadere,  non  interire  animas  (B.  G.  vi.  14),  they  wish  to  con- 
vince that  souls  do  not  perish. 

huic  persuadet  uti  ad  hostes  transeat  (B.  G.  ui.  18),  persuades  him  to 
pass  over  to  the  enemy. 

Note.  —  The  infinitive  with  subject-accusative  in  this  construction  is 
Indirect  Discourse,  and  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  simple  h.finitive 
sometimes  found  with  these  verbs  instead  of  a  subjunctive  clause. 

4.    Indicative  with  Quod. 

333.  A  peculiar  form  of  Substantive  Clause  consisting 
of  quod  causal  with  the  Indicative  is  used  when  the  state- 
ment is  regarded  as  a  fact :  as,  — 

alterum  est  vitium,  quod  quidam  nimis  magnum  studium  conferunt  (Off. 
L  19),  /■/  is  another  fault  that  some  bestow  too  much  zeal,  etc.  [Here 
ut  conferant  could  be  used,  meaning  that  some  should  bestow  ;  or 
the  accusative  and  infinitive,  meaning  to  bestow  (abstractly)  ;  quod 
makes  it  a  fact  that  men  do  bestow,  etc.] 

quod  rediit  nobis  mirabile  videtdr  (Off.  iii.  1 1 1),  that  he  (Regulus)  returned 
seems  wonderful  to  us. 

Note.  — The  clause  with  quod  may  be  used  as  subject,  as  object,  as 
appositive,  etc.,  but  it  is  commonly  either  the  subject  or  in  apposition  with 
the  subject. 

a.  In  colloquial  language,  the  clause  with  quod  sometimes  ap- 
pears as  an  accusative  of  specification,  corresponding  to  the  English 
WHEREAS  (cf.  §  326.  <2)  :  as,  — 

quod  de  domo  scribis  (Fam.  xiv.  2,  3),  as  to  what  you  write  of  the  house. 

b.  Verbs  oi  feeling  and  the  expression  of  feeling  take  either  quod, 
quia  (Causal),  or  the  accusative  and  infinitive  (Indirect  Discourse)  : 
as,— 

quod  scribis  .  .  .  gaudeo  (Q.  Y.m.\,^),  lam  glad  that  you  write. 
quae  perfecta  esse  vehementer  laetor  (Rose.  Am.  136),  I  greatly  rejoice 
that  this  is  finished. 

Remark.  —  Miror  and  similar  expressions  are  sometimes  followed  by  a 
clause  with  si.i  apparently  substantive,  but  really  a  protasis  (cf.  §  331.  e.  i. 
note).     Thus,  — 

miror  si  quemquam  amicum  habere  potuit  (Lael.  54),  /  wonder  if  he 
could  ever  have  a  friend.     [Originally,  If  this  is  so,  I  wonder  at  it.] 

^  Cf .  the  Greek  6avfid^<a  el. 

I 


294 


DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS. 


5.    Indirect  Questions. 


[§  334- 


Note.  —  An  Indirect  Question  is  any  sentence  or  clause  introduced  by 
an  Interrogative  word  (pronoun,  adverb,  etc.),  which  is  itself  the  subject  or 
object  of  a  verb^o^epends  on  any  expression  implying  uncertainty  or 
doubt.  In  gramrnafical  form,  exclamatory  sentences  are  not  distinguished 
from  interrogative. 

334.  (Rule  %2.)  An  Indirect  Question  takes  its  verb 
in  the  Subjunctive  :  as,  —  „ 

quid  ipse  sentiam  exponam  (Div.  i.   10),  /  will  explain  what  I  think. 

[Direct  :  quid  sentio.] 
rogat  me  quid  sentiam,  he  asks  me  what  I  think.     [Cf.  rogat  me  senten- 

tiam,  he  asks  me  my  opinion^ 

Note — An  Indirect  Question  may  be  the  subject  of  a  verb,  the  direct 
object,  the  secondary  object,  or  an  appositive. 

The  tenses  in  Indirect  Questions  follow  the  rules  for 
sequence  of  tenses. 

a.  Indirect  Questions  referring  to  future  time  take  the  subjunctive 
of  the  First  Periphrastic  conjugation  :  as,  — 

prospicio  qui  concursus  futuri  sint  (Div.  in  Caec.  42),  I  foresee  what 
throngs  there  will  be.     [Direct  :  qui  erunt?] 

b.  The  Deliberative  Subjunctive  (see  §  268  and  examples)  remains 
unchanged  in  an  Indirect  Question,  except  in  tense  :  as, — 

[quaeritur]  utrum  Carthago  diruatur,  an  Carthaginiensibus  reddatur  (De 
Inv.  i.  17),  [the  question  is]  shall  Carthage  be  destroyed^  or  restored 
to  the  Carthaginians. 

incerta  quid  peterent  aut  vitaxent  ( Liv.  xxviii  36),  sime  it  zoos  doubtful 
(abl.  abs.)  what  they  should  seek  or  shun. 

c.  In  colloquial  usage  and  in  poetry  the  subject  of  an  Indirect 
Question  is  often  attracted  into  the  main  clause  as  object  {accusative 
of  anticipation)  :  as,  — 

nosti  Marcellum  quam  tardus  sit  (Fam.  viii.  10),  you  know  how  slaw 
Marcellus  is.  [For  nosti  quam  tardus  sit  Maicellus.  Cf.  /  know 
thee  who  thou  art.'\ 

Remark.  —  In  some  cases  the  Object  of  anticipation  becomes  Subject 
by  a  change  of  voice,  and  an  apparent  mixture  of  relative  and  interrogative 
construction  is  the  result :  as,  — 


§  335-] 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 


295 


quidam  saepe  in  parva  pecunia  perspiciuntur  quam  sint  leves  (Lael.  63), 
it  is  often  seen,  in  a  trifling  matter  of  money ^  how  unprincipled  some 
people  are  (some  people  are  often  seen  through,  how  unprincipled 
they  are). 

d.  Indirect  Questions  often  take  the  Indicative  in  poetry  :  as, — 

non  reputat  quid  laboris  est  (Plant.  Am.  172),  he  does  not  consider  what 
a  task  it  is. 

e.  A  few  interrogative  expressions  are  used  parenthetically  in  an 
indefinite  sense  and  do  not  take  a  subjunctive.     Such  are  — 

nesdo  quis  (and  kindred  forms),  I  know  not  who,  somebody  or  other,  etc. 
mirum  (nimirum)  quam,  marvellously  (marvellous  how). 

Examples  are  :  — 

qui  istam  nescid  qoam  indolentiam  magnopere  laudant  (Tusc.  iii.  12),  who 

greatly  extol  that  freedom  from  pain,  whatever  that  is. 
miram  quantum  profuit  (Liv.  ii.  i),  //  helped  prodigiously. 

f.  An  indirect  question  is  occasionally  introduced  by  si  in  the  sense 
of  whether  (like  ifm  English,  cf.  §  333.  b.  Rem.)  :  as, — 

circumfunduntur  hostes  si  quem  aditum  reperfre  possent  (B.  G.  vi  37), 
the  enemy  pour  round  [to  see]  if  they  can  find  entratue. 

Note.  —  This  is  strictly  a  Protasis,  but  usually  no  Apodosis  is  thought 
of,  and  the  clause  is  virtually  an  Indirect  Question. 

g.  Foredt,  forsitan,  forsan,  fortasse,  fortasae  an,  perhaps,  are  often 
followed  by  the  Subjunctive  :  as,  — 

forsitan  quaeratis  qui  iste  terror  sit  (Rose.  Am.  ^1  you  may  perhaps  in- 
quire what  this  alarm  is. 

Note. — The  Subjunctive  Clause  in  this  case  was  originally  an  Indirect 
Question.     Thus,  /'/  would  be  a  chance  whether,  etc. 


in.     INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

335.  A  Direct  Quotation  gives  the  exact  words  of  the 
original  speaker  or  writer. 

An  Indirect  Quotation  adapts  the  words  of  the  speaker 
or  writer  to  the  construction  of  the  sentence  in  which  they 
are  quoted. 


296 


DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS. 


I.     Formal  Indirect  Discourse. 


[§  11^' 


336.  I.  Verbs  and  other  expressions  of  knowings 
thinkingy  telling,  and  perceiving^  govern  the  Indirect 
Discourse. 

2.  (Rule  '^i)  In  the  Indirect  Discourse  the  main 
clause  of  a  Declaratory  Sentence  is  put  in  the  Infinitive 
with  Subject  Accusative.  All  Subordinate  clauses  take 
the  Subjunctive.     Thus,  — 

spero  me  liberatum  [esse]  de  metu  (Tusc.  ii.  67),  /  trust  I  have  been 
freed  from  fear. 

[dicit]  esse  nonnullos  quorum  auctoritas  plurimum  valeat  (B.  G.  i.  17), 
he  says  there  are  some  whose  influence  most  prevails.  [In  direct  dis- 
course :  sunt  nonnalli  .  .  .  valet.] 

Note  i.  —  In  the  statement  of  all  speech  or  thought,  the  Romans  tended 
to  use  the  Indirect  Discourse,  etc.,  with  verbs  of  the  classes  mentioned, 
but  :  inquam,  said  I  (etc.),  is  appropriated  to  the  Direct  Discourse  except 
in  poetry. 

Note  2.  —  The  verb  of  sayings  etc.,  is  often  not  expressed,  but  implied 
in  some  word  or  in  the  general  drift  of  the  sentence  :  as,  — 

orantes  ut  urbibus  saltern  —  iam  enim  agros  deploratos  esse  —  opem 
senatus  ferret  (Liv.  xli.  d),  praying  that  the  senate  would  at  least  bring 
aid  to  the  cities  — for  the  fields  [they  said]  were  already  given  up  as 
lost. 

I.    Subject  Accusative. 

a.  I.  The  Subject  .of  the  Infinitive  in  Indirect  Discourse  must 
regularly  be  expressed,  even  if  it  is  wanting  in  the  direct :  as,  — 

orator  sum,  /  am  an  orator- ;  dlcit  se  esse  oratorem,  he  says  he  is  an 
orator. 

Note.  —  But  the  subject  is  often  omitted,  if  easily  understood  :  as,  — 

ignoscere  impriidentiae  dixit  (B.  G.  iv.  27),  he  said  he  pardoned  their 
rashness. 

1  Such  are :  (i)  knowing,  scio,  cognosce,  compertum  habeo,  etc.  ;  (2) 
thinking,  puto,  existimo,  arbitror,  etc.  ;  (3)  telling,  dico,  nuatid,  refero,  pol- 
liceor,  promitto,  certiorem  facio,  etc. ;  (4)  perceizHng,  sentio,  comperio,  video, 
audio,  etc.  So  in  general  any  word  that  denotes  thought  or  mental  and 
visual  perception  or  their  expression  may  govern  the  Indirect  Discourse. 


§  336.] 


SUBORDINATE    CLAUSES. 


297 


Remark.  —  After  a  relative,  or  quam  {than),  if  the  verb  would  be  the 
same  as  that  of  the  main  clause,  it  is  usually  omitted,  and  its  subject  is 
attracted  into  the  accusative  :  as,  — 

te  suspicor  eisdem  rebus  quibus  me  ipsum  commoveri  (Cat.  Maj.  i),  / 
suspect  that  you  are  disturbed  by  the  same  things  as  I. 

2.  When  the  verb  of  saying,  etc.,  h^Qomt^  passive,  the  construction 
may  be  either  Personal  or  Impersonal  (see  §  330.  a-d). 

2.    Subordinate  Clauses. 

b.  A  subordinate  clause  merely  explanatory  or  containing  state- 
ments which  are  regarded  as  true  independently  of  the  quotation 
takes  the  Indicative  :  as,  — 

quis  neget  haec  omnia  quae  videmus  deorum  potestate  administrari  (Cat. 
iii.  2 1 ),  who  can  deny  that  all  these  things  we  see  are  ruled  by  the  power 
of  the  gods? 

ciiius  ingenio  putabat  ea  quae  gesserat,  posse  celebrari  (Arch.  20),  by 
whose  genius  he  thought  that  those  deeds  which  he  had  done  could  be 
celebrated.  [Here  the  faqt  expressed  by  quae  gesserat,  though  not 
explanatory,  is  felt  to  be  true  without  regard  to  the  quotation  :  quae 
gessisset  would  mean,  what  Marius  claimed  to  have  done.] 

Note.  —  It  often  depends  merely  upon  the  feeling  of  the  writer  whether 
he  shall  use  the  Indicative  or  Subjunctive  in  such  clauses  (cf.  §§  340-342). 

c.  Clauses  introduced  by  a  relative  which  is  equivalent  to  a  demon- 
strative with  a  conjunction  are  not  properly  subordinate,  and  hence 
take  the  Accusative  and  Infinitive  in  Indirect  Discourse:  as, 

Marcellus  requisisse  dlcitur  Archimedem  ilium,  quern  cum  audisset 
interfectum  permoleste  tulisse  (Verr.  iv.  131),  Marcellus  is  scud  to 
have  sought  for  Archimedes,  and  when  he  heard  that  he  was  slain,  to 
have  been  greatly  distressed. 

unumquemque  nostrum  censent  philosophi  mundi  esse  partem,  ex  qoo 
[=et  ex  eo]  illud  natiira  consequl  (Fin.  iii.  64),  the  philosophers  say 
that  each  one  of  us  is  a  part  of  the  universe,  from  which  this  naturally 
follows. 

Note  i.  —  Really  subordinate  clauses  occasionally  take  this  construc- 
tion :  as,  — 

qaemadmodom  si  non  dedatur  obses  pro  rupto  se  foedas  habiturum,  sic 
deditam  inviolatam  ad  suos  remissurum  (Liv.  ii.  13),  [he  says]  as  in 
case  the  hostage  is  not  given  up  he  shall  consider  the  treaty  as  broken, 
so  if  given  up  he  will  return  her  unharmed  to  her  friends. 


t 


298 


DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS. 


[§  336  a. 


§§  336  b,  T.zi'']    CONDITIONS  IN  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE.      299 


Note  2.  —  The  infinitive   construction   is   regularly  continued  after  a 
comparative  with  quam  :  as,  — 

addit  se  prius  occisum  iri  ab  eo  quam  me  violatum  iri  (Att.  ii.  20,  2),  he 
adds  that  he  himself  will  be  killed  by  him,  before  I  shall  be  injured. 

Note  3.  —  The  Subjunctive  with  or  without  ut  also  occurs  with  quam 
(see  §  332.  b). 

d.  A  subordinate  clause  in  the  Indirect  Discourse  occasionally 
takes  the  Indicative  when  \S\^fact  is  emphasized  :  as, — 

factum  eius  hostis  periculum  .  .  .  cum,  Cimbrls  et  Teutonis  .  .  .  pulsis, 
non  minorem  laudem  exercitus  quam  ipse  imperator  meritus  videba- 
tur  (B.  G.  i.  40),  that  a  trial  of  this  enemy  had  been  made  when,  etc., 
the  army  seemed,  etc. 

3.    Tenses  of  the  Infinitive. 

336.  A.  The  Present,  the  Perfect,  or  the  Future  In- 
finitive is  used  in  Indirect  Discourse,  according  as  the 
time  indicated  \^  present,  pasty  ox  future  y  with  reference  to 
the  verb  of  saying,  etc.,  by  which  the  Indirect  Discourse 
is  introduced.     Thus,  — 


cad5,   /  am  falling  \  .    .   l-se  cadere, 


he 


ts 


was 


falling. 


dicit^    _ 


'dixit! 


se  cecidisse, 


he  says  1  he  was  falling, 
he  said )  fell,  had  fallen. 

he  says  he  shall  fall. 


he  says'] 
he  sa:dj 

cadebam,  I  was  falling 
cecidl,  I  fell 
cecideram,  /  had  fallen 

cadam,  /  shall  fall  \   ...    l-se   casurum    fessel,  ,   ,        ...      ,      .  .  ^  „ 

1^  dixit  J  "-        ^    yhe  said  he  should  fall. 

cecidero,  /j->4a//Jdicit  fore  ut  ceciderit  [rare],  he  says  he  shall  have  fallen, 
have  fallen  \dIxitfore  utcecidisset  \xzx€\,  he  said  he  should  have  fallen. 

Note  i.  —  All  varieties  of  past  time  are  usually  expressed  in  Indirect 
Discourse  by  the  Perfect  Infinitive,  which  may  stand  for  the  Imperfect,  the 
Perfect,  or  the  Pluperfect  Indicative  of  the  Direct.  But  sometimes  con- 
tinued or  repeated  action  in  past  time  is  expressed  by  the  Present  Infinitive, 
which  in  such  cases  stands  for  the  Present  Indicative  of  the  Direct  Dis- 
course, and  is  often  called  the  Imperfect  Infinitive  (so  regularly  after 
memini) :  thus,  — 

te  memini  dicere,  /  remember  that  you  said.     [Direct  :  dicebas.] 
Note  2.  —  For  various  ways  of  expressing  the   Future  Infinitive,  see 
§  147-  c. 


4.    Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive. 

336.  B.  The  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  Indirect 
Discourse  follow  the  rule  for  the  Sequence  of  Tenses 
(§  286).  They  depend  for  their  sequence  on  the  verb  of 
sayingy  etc.,  by  which  the  Indirect  Discourse  is  introduced. 

Thus  in  the  sentence,  dixit  se  Romam  itunim  ut  consulem  videret, 
he  said  he  should  go  to  Rome  in  order  that  he  might  see  the  consul, 
videret  follows  the  sequence  of  dixit  without  regard  to  the  Future 
Infinitive,  itunim  [esse],  on  which  it  directly  depends. 

Note  i.  —  This  rule  applies  not  only  to  the  subjunctive  in  subordinate 
clauses  in  indirect  discourse,  but  also  to  that  which  stands  for  the  impera- 
tive, etc.  (see  examples  m  §  339),  and  to  that  in  questions  (§  338). 

Note  2.  —  A  subjunctive  depending  on  a  Perfect  Infinitive  is  commonly 
in  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect,  even  if  the  verb  of  saying,  etc.,  is  in  a 
primary  tense  (cf.  §  287.  /).     Thus,  — 

tantum  prdfecisse  videmur  ut  a  Graecis  ne  verborum  quidem  copia  vince- 
remur  (N.  D.  i.  8),  we  seim  to  have  advanced  so  far  that  even  in 
fullness  of  words  we  ARE  not  surpassed  by  the  Greeks. 

a.  The  Present  and  Perfect  Subjunctive  are  often  used  in  depend- 
ent clauses  of  the  Indirect  Discourse  even  when  the  verb  of  saying, 
etc.,  is  in  a  secondary  tense  :  as,  — 

dicebant  .  .  .  totidem  Nervios  (pollicerT)  qui  longissime  absint  (B.  G. 
ii.  4),  they  said  that  the  Nervii,  who  live  farthest  off,  promised  as 
many. 

Note.  —  This  construction  comes  from  the  tendency  of  language  to 
refer  all  time  in  narration  to  the  time  of  the  speaker  {Repraesentdtio).  In 
the  course  of  a  long  passage  in  the  Indirect  Discourse  the  tenses  of  the 
subjunctive  often  vary,  sometimes  following  the  Sequence,  and  sometimes 
affected  by  Repraesentdtio.     For  examples  see  B.  G.  i.  13,  vii.  20,  etc. 


^ 


5.    Conditions  in  Indirect  Discourse. 

337.    Conditional  sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse  are 
expressed  as  follows:  — 

1.  The  Protasis,  being  a  subordinate  clausey  is  always  in  the  Sub- 
junctive. 

2.  The  Apodosis,  if  independent  and  not  hortatory  or  optative,  is 
always  in  some  form  of  the  Infinitive. 


300 


DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS. 


[§  337- 


§  IZ^'^  QUESTIONS  IN  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 


a.  The  Present  Subjunctive  in  the  apodosis  of  less  vivid  future 
conditions  (§  307.  b)  becomes  the  Future  Infinitive.  Thus  there  is 
no  distinction  between  more  or  less  vivid  future  conditions  in  the 
Indirect  Discourse. 

Examples  of  conditional  sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse  are 

1.  Simple  Present  Condition  (§  306). 

(dixit)  si  ipse  populo  Romano  n5n  praescriberet  quemadmodum  suo  iure 
uteretur,  non  oportere  sese  a  populo  Romano  in  suo  iure  impediri 
(B.  G.  i.  36),  he  said  that  if  he  did  not  dictate  to  the  Roman  people  hmv 
they  should  use  their  rights,  he  ought  not  to  be  interfered  with  by  the 
Roman  people  in  the  exercise  of  his  rights.  [Direct :  si  non  prae- 
scribo  .  .  .  non  oportet.] 

praedicavit  ...  si  pace  uti  velint,  inicum  esse,  etc.  (B.  G.  i.  44),  he  as- 
serted that  if  they  wished  to  enjoy  peace,  it  was  unfair,  etc.  [Direct : 
si  volunt  .  .  .  est.  Present  tense  kept  by  Repraesentdtio  (§  336.  B. 
a.  note).] 

2.  Simple  Past  Condition  (§  306.)  * 

non  dlcam  ne  illud  quidem  si  maxime  in  culpa  fuerit_Apoll6nius,  tamen 
in  hominem  honestissimae  civitatis  honestissimum  tarn  graviter  ani- 
madvert! causa  indicta  n5n  oportuisse  (Verr.  v.  20),  /  will  not  say 
this  either,  that,  even  if  Apollonius  was  greatly  in  fault,  still  an  honor- 
able man  ought  not  to  have  been  punished  so  severely,  etc.  [Direct: 
si  fuit  .  .  .  non  oportuit.] 

3.  Future  Condition's  (§  307). 

Aeduis  se  obsides  redditurum  non  esse,  neque  eis  .^.  .  bellum  Ulaturum, 
si  in  e5  manerent,  quod  convenisset,  stipendiumque  quotanniTpenHe- 
rent :  si  id  non  feciw^nt,  longe  eis  fraternum  nomen  populi  Romani 
abfuturum  (B.  G^^  i.  36),  he  said  that  he  would  not  give  up  the  hostages 
to  tke  y^dui,  bui  would  not  make  war  upon  them  if  they  observed  the 
agreement,  etc.,  and  paid  tribute  yearly  ;  but  if  they  should  not  do  this, 
the  name  of  brothers  to  the  Roman  people  would  be  far  from  aiding 
them.  [Direct :  reddam  .  .  .  inferam  ...  si  manebunt  .  .  .  pendent : 
si  non  fecerint  .  .  .  al^ri^J 

id  Datames  ut  audivit,  sensit,  si  in  turbam  exisset  ab  homine  tam  neces- 
sario  se  relictum,  futarum  [esse]  ut  ceteri  consilium  sequantur  (Nep. 
Dat.  6),  //  //  should  get  abroad  that  he  had  been  abandoned  by  a  man 
so  closely  connected  with  him,  everybody  else  would  follow  his  example. 
[Direct :  si  exierit  .  .  .  sequentur.] 

b.  In  changing  a  Condition  contrary  to  fact  (§  308)  into  the  Indi- 
rect Discourse,  the  following  points  require  notice :  — 


301 


1 .  The  Protasis  always  remains  unchanged  in  tense. 

2.  If  the  verb  of  the  Apodosis  sTactive  it  takes  a  peculiar  infini- 
tive form,  made  by  combining  the  Participle  in  -uruswith  fuisse. 

3.  If  it  is  passive  or  has  no  supine  stem,  the  periphrasis  futurum 
fuisse  ut  (with  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive)  must  be  used. 

4.  An  Indicative  in  the  Apodosis  becomes  Perfect  Infinitive. 
Examples  are  — 

nee  se  superstitem  filiae  futurum  fuisse,  nisi  spem  ulciscendae  mortis 
eius  in  auxiUo  commnitonum  habuisset  (Liv.  iii.  50),  and  that  he 
should  not  now  be  a  survivor,  etc.,  unless  he  had  had  hope,  etc. 
[Direct :  non  superstes  essem,  nisi  habuissem.] 

quorum  si  aetas  potuisset  esse  longinquior,  futiirum  fuisse  ut  omnibus 
perfectis  artibus  hominum  vita  erudiretur  (Tusc.  iii.  69),  //  life 
could  have  been  longer,  human  existence  would  have  been  embellished 
by  every  art  in  its  perfection.     [Direct :  erudita  esset.] 

si  Cn.  Pompeius  privatus  esset,  tamen  erat  deligendus  (Manil.  50),  if  P. 
were  a  private  citizen,  still  he  ought  to  be  chosen,  would  become  deli- 
gendum  fuisse. 

Note  i.  — In  Indirect  Discourse  Present  Conditions  contrary  to  fact 
are  not  distinguished  in  the  apodosis  from  Past,  but  \\i^  protasis  may  keep 
them  distinct. 

Note  2.  — The  periphrasis  futurum  fuisse  ut  is  sometimes  used  from 
choice  when  there  is  no  necessity  for  resorting  to  it. 

Note  3.  —  Very  rarely  the  Future  Infinitive  is  used  in  the  Indirect  Dis- 
course to  express  the  Apodosis  of  a  Present  Condition  contrary  to  fact. 
Only  four  or  five  examples  of  this  use  occur  in  classic  authors  :  as,  — 
Titurms  clamabat  si  Caesar  adesset  neque  Camiites,  etc.,  neque  Eburo- 
nes  tanta  cum  contemptione  nostri  ad  castra  venturos  esse  (B.  G.  v. 
29),  Titurius  cried  out  that  if  Casar  were  present,  neither  would  the 
Carnutes,  etc.,  nor  would  the  Eburones  be  coming  to  our  camp  with 
such  contempt.     [Direct :  si  adesset .  .  .  venirent.] 

6.    Questions  in  Indirect  Discourse. 

888.  (Rule  84.)  In  the  Indirect  Discourse  a  real 
question,  asking  for  an  answer,  is  generally  put  in  the 
Subjunctive:  a  rhetorical  question,  asked  for  effect  and 
implying  its  own  answer,  in  the  Infinitive.     Thus, — 

quid  sibi  vellet  ?  cur  m  suas  possessiones  veniret  (B.  G.  i.  44),  what  did 
he  want  ?  why  did  he  come  into  his  territories  ?  [Real  question. 
Direct :  quid  vis  ?  cur  venis  ?  ] 


302 


DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS. 


[§  339- 


num  recentium  iniuriarum  memoriam  [se]  deponere  posse  (id.  i.  14), 
could  he  lay  aside  the  memory  of  recent  wrongs  ?  [Rhetorical  Ques- 
tion.    Direct :  num  possum  ?] 

Note  i.— No  sharp  line  can  be  drawn  between  the  Subjunctive  and 
the  Infinitive  in  questions  in  the  Indirect  Discourse.  Whether  the  ques- 
tion is  to  be  regarded  as  rhetorical  or  real  often  depends  merely  on  the 
writer's  point  of  view.     Thus,  — 

utrum  partem  regnl  petiturum  esse,  an  totum  erepturum  (Li v.  xlv.  19), 
will  you  ask  part  of  the  regal  power  (he  said),  or  seize  the  whole? 

Note  2.  —  Questions  coming  immediately  after  a  verb  of  asking  are 
treated  as  Indirect  Questions  and  take  the  Subjunctive  (see  §  334).  This 
is  true  even  when  the  verb  of  asking  serves  also  to  introduce  a  passage  in 
the  Indirect  Discourse.     The  question  may  be  either  real  or  rhetorical. 

Note  3.  —  For  the  use  of  tenses,  see  §  336.  B,  note  i. 

a,  A  Deliberative  Subjunctive  in  the  Direct  Discourse  is  always 
retained  in  the  Indirect  :  as,  — 

cor  aliquos  ex  suls  amitteret  (B.  C.  i.  72),  why  (thought  he)  should  he 
lose  some  of  his  men  ?     [Direct  :  cur  amittam  ?] 


V 


7.    Commands  in  Indirect  Discourse. 


339.  (Rule  85.)  All  Imperative  forms  of  speech  take 
the  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Discourse  :  as, 

reminisceretur  veteris  incommodi  (B.  G.  i.  13),  remember  (said  he)  the 

ancient  disaster.     [Direct :  reminiscere.] 
Untm  i&.ciaX  (id.  20),  let  him  make  an  end.     [Direct  :  fac] 

Remark.  —  Thb  rule  applies  not  only  to  the  Imperative  of  the  direct 
discourse,  but  to  the  hortatory  and  the  optative  subjunctive  as  well. 

Note  i.  —  Though  these  subjunctives  stand  for  independent  clauses  of 
the  direct  discourse,  they  follow  the  rule  for  the  sequence  of  tenses,  being 
in  fact  dependent  on  the  verb  of  saying,  etc.  (cf.  §§  286,  336.  B,  note  i). 

Note  2.  —A  Prohibition  in  the  Indirect  Discourse  is  regularly  expressed 
by  ne  with  the  Subjunctive,  even  when  noli  with  the  Infinitive  would  be 
used  in  the  Direct :  as,  — 

ne  perturbarentur  (B.  G.  vii.  29),  do  not  (he  said)  be  troubled.     [Direct  : 
nolite  perturbari.     But  sometimes  nollet  is  found  in  Ind.  Disc] 

The  following  example  illustrates  some  of  the  foregoing  principles 
in  a  connected  address  :  — - 


§§  340,  341] 


INTERMEDIATE  CLAUSES. 


303 


INDIRECT    DISCOURSE. 

Si  pacem  populus  Roman  us  cum 
Helvetiis   faceret,    in    eam    partem 
ituros  atque   ibi  futures   Helvetios, 
ubi  eos  Caesar  constituisset  atque 
esse   voluisset:    sin   bell5   persequi 
perseveraret,  reminisceretur  et  veteris 
incommodi  populi  Roman!,  et  pristi- 
nae  virtOtis  Helvetiorum.    Quod  im- 
provise unum  pagum  adortus  esset, 
cum  el  qui  flumen  transissent  suis 
auxilium   ferre  non  possent,  ne   ob 
eam  rem  aut  suae  magno  opere  vir- 
tutl  tribueret,  aut   ipsos  despiceret : 
se  ita  a  patribus  maioribusque  suis 
didicisse,  ut  magis  virtute  quam  dolo 
contenderent,  aut  Insidiis  niterentur. 
Quare   ne  committeret,  ut  is  locus 
ubi     constitissent     ex     calamitate 
populi  RomanI  et  intemecione  exer- 
citus  nomen  caperet,  aut  memoriam 
proderet.  — B.  G.  i.  13. 


DIRECT   DISCOURSE. 


Si  pacem  populus  Romanus  cum 
Helvetiis    faciet,    in    eam    partem 
ibunt   atque   ibi  erunt  Helvetii,  ubi 
eos  tu  constitueris  atque  esse  volu- 
eris  :  sin  bello  persequi  perseverabis, 
reminiscere  [inquit]  et  veteris  incom- 
modi populi  RomanI  et  pristinae  vir- 
tutis  Helvetiorum.     Quod  improvlso 
unum  pagum  adortus  es,  cum  el  qui 
flumen    transierant    suis    auxUium 
ferre  non   possent,  ne  ob  eam  rem 
aut  tuae  magno  opere  virtuti  tribu- 
eris,   aut  nos  despexeris :  nos   ita  a 
patribus  maioribusque   nostris  didi- 
cimus,  ut  magis  virtute  quam  dolo 
contendamus,    aut  insidiis   nitamur. 
Quare  noli  committere,  ut  hie  locus 
ubi  constitimus  ex  calamitate  populi 
RomanI    et    intemecione    exercitus 
nomen  capiat,  aut  memoriam  prodat. 


II.  Intermediate  Clauses. 

340.  A  Subordinate  clause  takes  the  Subjunctive,  (i) 
when  it  expresses  the  thought  of  some  other  person  than 
the  speaker  or  writer  {Informal  hidirect  Discourse),  or  (2) 
when  it  is  an  integral  part  of  a  Subjunctive  clause  or 
equivalent  Infinitive  {Attraction). 

I.    Informal  Indirect  Discourse. 

341.  (Rule  %6.)  A  subordinate  clause  takes  the  sub- 
junctive when  it  expresses  the  thought  of  some  other 
person  than  the  writer  or  speaker.     Thus, 

a.  In  Subordinate  clauses  in  formal  indirect  discourse  (§  336). 
So  also  in  Informal   Indirect  Discourse  in  the  following  cases :  — 

b.  When  the  clause  depends  upon  another  containing  a  wish,  a 
command,  or  a  question  expressed  indirectly,  though  not  strictly'in 
the  form  of  Indirect  Discourse  :  as,  — 


kv- 


^^pa 


304 


DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS. 


[§  342. 


animal  sen  tit  quid  sit  quod  deceat  (Off.  i.  14),  an  animal  feels  what  it  is 
that  is  fit. 

hunc  sibi  ex  animd  scrupulum,  qui  se  dies  noctesque  stimulet  ac  pungat, 
ut  evellatis  postulat  (Rose.  Am.  6),  he  begs  you  to  pluck  from  his  heart 
this  doubt  that  goads  and  stings  him  day  and  night. 

c.  When  the  main  clause  of  a  quotation  is  merged  in  the  verb  of 
sayings  or  some  modifier  of  it :  as,  — 

si  quid  de  his  rebus  dicere  vellet,  feci  potestatem  (Cat.  iii.  11),  if 
he  wished  to  say  anything  about  these  matters,  I  gave  him  a  chance. 

tulit  de  caede  quae  in  Appia  via  facta  esset  (Milo  15),  he  passed  a  law 
concerning  the  murder  which  (in  the  language  of  the  bill)  took  place 
in  the  Appian  Way. 

d.  When  a  reason  or  an  explanatory  fact  is  introduced  by  a  rela- 
tive or  by  quod  (rarely  quia)  (see  §  321).     Thus,  — 

Paetus  omnes  libros  quos  pater  suus  reliquisset  mihi  donavit  (Att.  ii.  1,12), 
Patus  presented  me  all  the  books  which  (he  said)  his  father  had  left. 

Remark.  —  Under  this  head  even  what  the  speaker  himself  thought 
elsewhere  may  have  the  Subjunctive.  So  with  quod  the  verb  of  saying  may 
be  in  the  Subjunctive.     (Especially  non  quia,  etc.     See  §  321.  Rem.) 

2.    Subjunctive  of  Integral  Part  (Attraction). 

342.  (Rule  Zj.)  A  clause  depending  on  a  Subjunctive 
clause  or  an  equivalent  Infinitive  will  itself  take  the  Sub- 
junctive if  regarded  as  an  integral  part  of  that  clause :  as,  — 

imperat,  dum  res  adiudicetur,  hominem  ut  adservent  :  cum  iudicatum  sit, 
ad  se  adducant  (Verr.  iii.  55),  he  orders  them,  till  the  affair  should 
be  decided,  to  keep  the  man  ;  when  he  is  judged,  to  bring  him  to  him. 

mos  est  Athenis  laudari  in  contione  eos  qui  sint  in  proelils  interfecti 
(Or.  151),  //  is  the  custom  at  Athens  for  those  to  be  publicly  eulogized 
who  have  been  slain  in  battle.     [Here  laudari  =  ut  laudentur.] 

a.  But  a  dependent  clause,  closely  connected  grammatically  with 
a  Subjunctive  or  Infinitive  clause,  may  still  take  the  Indicative,  if  it 
is  not  regarded  as  a  necessary  logical  part  of  that  clause  :  as,  — 

ne  hostes,  quod  tantum  multitudine  poterant,  suos  circumvenire  possent 
(B.  G.  ii.  8),  lest  the  enemy,  because  they  were  so  strong  in  numbers, 
should  be  able  to  surround  his  men. 

Note.  —  The  use  of  the  Indicative  serves  to  emphasize  theyb^/,  as  true. 
But  often  no  distinction  between  the  two  moods  is  perceptible. 


IMPORTANT  RULES  OR  SYNTAX.  305 


IMPORTANT    RULES    OF    SYNTAX. 

1.  A  noun  used  to  describe  another,  and  denoting  the  same 

person  or  thing,  agrees  with  it  in  Case  (§  183) 

2.  Adjectives,  adjective  pronouns,  and  participles  agree  with 

their  nouns  m  gender,  number,  and  case  (§  1S6). 

3.  A  Relative  pronoun  agrees  with  its  Antecedent  in  gender 

and  number,  but  its  case  depends  on  the  construction  of 
the  clause  in  which  it  stands  (§  198). 

4.  A  Finite  Verb  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  number  ^v,A person 
^     (^  204). 

5.  Superlatives  (more  rarely  comparatives)  denoting  order  and 

succession  —  also  medius,  cetenis.  relicus  —  usually 
designate  not  what  object,  but  what  fart  of  it,  is  meant 
(§  193)- 

6.  The  Personal  Pronouns  have  two  forms  for  the  genitive  plu- 

ral, that  in  -urn  being  used  partitively,  and  that  in  -i 
oftenest  objectively  (§  194.^). 

7.  The  Reflexive  pronoun  (se),  and  usually  the  corresponding 

possessive  (suus),  are  used  in  some  part  of  the  predicate 
to  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence  or  clause  (§  196) 

8.  The  Possessive  Pronouns  are  used  instead  of  the  genitive 

of  a  personal  pronoun  :  (i)  always  instead  of  the  pos- 
sessive genitive,  (2)  rarely  instead  of  an  objective  genitive 
(§  197-^). 

9.  A  Possessive  representing  a  genitive  may  have  a  genitive 

m  apposition  (§  197.  <f). 

10.  Adverbs  are   used   to  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other 

adverbs  (§  207). 

11.  A  question  of  simple  fact,  requiring  the  answer  yes  or  no 

is  formed   by  adding  the   enclitic  -ue  to  the  emphatic 
word  (§  2\o.a). 

12.  Wheji  the  enclitic  -ne  is  added  to  a  negative  word, —  as  in 

nonne,  —  an  affirmative  answer  is  expected.     The  particle 
Hum  suggests  a  negative  answer  '(§  210.  c). 


^- 


306  IMPORTANT  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

13.  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  Nominative  (§  173.  a). 

14.  A  noun  used  to  limit  or  define  another,  and  not  denoting 

the    same    person   or   thing,    is   put   in  the    Genitive 

(§  213). 

15.  The  Subjective  Genitive  is  used  with  a  noun  to  denote  (i) 

the  Author  or  Owner,   (2)  the  Source  or  the   Material, 
(3)  the  Quality  (§  214). 

16.  Words  denoting  a  Part  are  followed  by  the  Genitive  of  the 

Whole  to  which   the   part  belongs  {Partitive   Genitive, 

§  216). 

17.  Nouns  oi  action,  agency,  znd  fee/ing  govern  the  genitive  of 

the  object  (Objective  Genitive,  §  217). 
\y\%.  Adjectives  denoting  desire,  knowledge,  memory,  fulness, power, 
sharing,  guilt,  and  their  opposites ;    verbals  in  ax,  and 
participles  in  -ns,  when  used  as  adjectives,  govern  the 
Genitive  (§  2\Z.a,  b). 

Verbs  of  remembering  2inA  forgetting,  take  the  Genitive  of  the 
object  when  they  are  used  of  a  continued  state  of  mind, 
but  the  Accusative  when  used  of  a  single  act  (§  219). 

Verbs  of  accusing,  condemning,  and  acquitting  take  the  Geni- 
tive of  the  Charge  or  Pejialty  (§  220). 

The  Dative  is  used  of  the  object  indirectly  affected  by  an 
action  {Indirect  Object,  §  224). 

22.  Most  verbs  signifying  to  favor,  help,  please,  trust,  and  their 
contraries  ;  also,  to  believe,  persuade,  command,  obey,  serve, 
resist,  envy,  threaten,  pardon,  and  spare,  take  the  Dative 

(§  227). 

23.  Most  verbs  compounded  with  ad,  ante,  con,  in,  inter,  ob,  post, 
prae,  pro,  sub,  super,  and  some  with  circum,  take  the 
Dative  of  the  indirect  object  (§  228). 

24.  Many  verbs  of  taking  away,  and  the  like,  take  the  Dative 
(especially  of  2. person)  instead  of  the  Ablative  of  Sepa- 
ration (§  229). 

25.  The  passive  of  intransitive  verbs  that  govern  the  dative 
can  be  used  only  impersonally  (§  146.  d).  The  dative  is 
retained  (cf.  §  225.  e). 


—    20. 


21. 


y 


28. 


29. 


30- 


31 


32. 


IMPORTANT  RULES   OF  SYNTAX.  307 

26.  The  Dative  is  used  with  esse  and  similar  words  to  denote 
Possession  (§  231). 

27.  The  Dative  of  the  Agent  is  used  with  the  Gerundive, 
to  denote  the  person  on  whom  the  necessity  rests 
(§  232). 

The  Dative  is  used  to  denote  the  Purpose  or  End,  often 
with  another  Dative  of  the  person  or  thing  affected 
(§  233.  <z). 

The  Dative  is  used  with  adjectives  (and  a  few  adverbs)  of 
ftness,  nearness,  service,  inclination,  and  their  opposites 
(§  234.  a). 

The  Dative  is  often  required,  not  by  any  particular  word, 
but  by  the  general  meaning  of  the  sentence  {Dative  of 
Reference,  §  235). 

The  Direct  Object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  put  in  the  Accusa- 
tive (§  237). 

A  neuter  verb  often  takes  an  accusative  of  kindred  mean- 
ing (§  238). 

n.  Verbs  of  naming,  choosing,  appointing,  making,  esteeming, 
showing,  and  the  like,  may  take  a  Predicate  Accusative 
along  with  the  direct  object  (§  239.  d). 

34.  Transitive  verbs  compounded  with  prepositions  some- 
times take  (in  addition  to  the  direct  object)  a  Sec- 
ondary Object,  originally  governed  by  the  preposition 
(§  239.  b). 

35-  Verbs  of  asking  and  teaching  may  take  two  Accusatives,  one 

of  t\ie  person,  and  the  other  of  the  thing  (§  239   c) 
l(^.  The  subject  of  an  Infinitive  is  in  the  Accusative  (§  173  2) 
37.  Duration  of  Time  and  Extent  of  Space  are  expressed  by  the 

Accusative  (§  240.^). 
l^.  Words  signifying  separation  ox  privation  are  followed  by  the 

Ablative,  with  or  without  a   preposition   {Ablative  of 

Separation,  §  243). 

39.  Opus  and  usus,  signifying  need,  are  followed  by  the  Ablative 

(§  243-  ^)- 

40.  The  Ablative,  with  or  without  a  preposition,  is  used  to  denote 


3o8 


IMPORTANT  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


the  source  from  which  anything  is  derived  or  the  material 
of  which  it  consists  (§  244). 
41.  The  Ablative,  with  or  without  a  preposition,  is  used  to  ex- 
press cause  (§  245). 
Dignus  and  indignus ;  contentus,  laetus,  praeditus,  etc.,  take 
the  Ablative  (§  245.^). 

43.  The  Voluntary  Agent  after  a  passive  verb  is  put  in  the  Abla- 

tive with  a  or  ab  (§  246). 

44.  The  Comparative  degree  is  followed  by  the  Ablative  (signi- 

fying than)  without  quam  (§  247). 

45.  The  Comparative  may  be  followed  by  quam,  than.     When 

quam  is  used,  the  two  things  compared  are  put  in  the 
same  case  (§  247.  a). 

46.  The  manner  of  an  action  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative,  usually 

with  cum,  unless  a  limiting  adjective  is  used  with  the 
noun  (§  248). 

47.  Accompaniment  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative,  regularly  with 

cum  (§  248.  a). 

48.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  the  means  or  instrument  of 

an  action  (§  248.  <:.  i). 

49.  The  deponents,  utor,  fraor,  fungor,  potior,  and  vescor,  with 

several  of  their  compounds,  govern  the  Ablative  (§  249). 

50.  With   comparatives   and   words   implying   comparison  the 

Ablative    is    used   to    denote    the    degree  of   difference 

(§  250)- 

5 1 .  Quality  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  with  a  modifier,  usually 

an  adjective  or  limiting  genitive  (§251). 

52.  Price  is  expressed  by  the  Ablative  (§  252). 

53.  The  Ablative  of  Specification  denotes  that  in  respect  to  which 

anything  is  or  is  done  (§  253). 

54.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  with  a  participle,  may  be  put  in  the 

Ablative,  to  define  the  time  or  circumstances  of  an  action 
{Ablative  Absolute). 

An  adjective,  or  a  second  noun,  may  take  the  place  of  the 
participle  in  the  ablative  absolute  construction  (§  255.  a). 


IMPORTANT  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


309 


55.  Time  when,  or  within  which,  is  expressed  by  the  Ablative ; 

time  how  long  by  the  Accusative  (§  256). 

56.  The  ^\^.cQ/rom  which  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  with  ab, 

de,  or  ex;  tht  place  to  which  (the  end  of  motion)  by  the 

Accusative  with  ad  or  in  (§  258.  <-). 

But  names  of  towns  or  small  islands  from  which,  as  also 
domus  and  riis,  are  put  in  the  Ablative  without  a  preposi- 
tion (§  2S^.a). 

So  also  names  of  towns  oc»small  islands  to  which,  as  also 
domus  and  riis,  are  put  in  the  Accusative  without  a  prepo- 
sition (§  258.  b). 

57.  ThQ place  where  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  with  the  preposi- 

tion in  {Locative  Ablative)  ;  but  names  of  towns  and 
small  islands  are  put  in  the  Locative  Case  (§  258.^). 

The  Locative  Case  is  also  preserved  in  domi,  belli,  militiae, 
hmni,  foris,  ruri,  terra  marique  (§  258.//). 

58.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject  accusative,  maybe 

used  with  est  and  similar  verbs  (i)  as  the  subject,  (2) 
in  apposition  with  the  subject,  or  (3)  as  a  predicate  nomi- 
native (§  270). 

59.  Verbs  which  imply  another  action  of  the  same  subject  to 

complete  their  meaning  take  the  Infinitive  without  a 
subject  accusative,  (Complementary  Infinitive,  %  2'] \). 

60.  The  Infinitive,  with  subject  accusative,  is  used  with  verbs 

and  other  expressions  of  knowing,  thinking,  telling,  and 
perceiving  {Indirect  Discourse,  see  §  272). 

61.  The  Infinitive  is  often  used  for  the  Imperfect   Indicative, 

in  narration  and  takes  a  subject  in  the  Nominative 
{Historical  Infinitive,  §  275). 
Sequence  of  Tenses.  In  complex  sentences,  2.  primary 
tense  in  the  main  clause  is  followed  by  the  Present  or 
Perfect  Subjunctive  ;  a  secondary  tense  by  the  Imperfect 
or  Pluperfect  (§  286). 
63.  The  tenses  of  the  Infinitive  denote  time  z.^  present,  past,  or 
future  with  respect  to  the  time  of  the  verb  on  -which  they 
depend  (§  288). 


62 


3IO 


IMPORTANT  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


64.  Participles  denote  time   as  present^  past^  or  future  with 

respect  to  the  time  of  the  verb  in  their  clause  (§  290). 

65.  The  Gerund  and  the  Gerundive  are  used,  in  the  oblique 

cases,  in  many  of  the  constructions  of  nouns  (§  297). 

For  particulars,  see  §§  298-301. 

66.  The  Former  Supine  (in  -mn)  is  used  after  verbs  of  motion 

to  express  Purpose  (§  302). 

67.  The  Latter  Supine  (in  -u)  is  used  only  with  a  few  adjec- 

tives, with  the  nouns  fas,  nefas,  and  opus,  and  rarely  with 
verbs,  to  denote  an  action  in  reference  to  which  the  quality 
is  asserted  (§  303). 

68.  The  Hortatory  Subjunctive  is  used  to  express  an  exhorta- 

tion^ a  command,  a  concession,  or  a  condition  (§  266). 

69.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  express  a  wish.     The  present 

tense  denotes  the  wish  as  possible,  the  imperfect  as  un- 
accomplished in  present  time,  the  pluperfect  as  unaccom- 
plished \n  past  time  (^Optative  Subjunctive,  §  267). 

70.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  questions  implying  doubt,  indig- 

nation, or  an  impossibility  of  the  thing  being  done  {Delib- 
erative Subjunctive,  §  268). 

71.  Prohibition  is  regularly  expressed  in  classic  prose  (i)  by 

ne  with  the  second  person  of  the  Perfect  Subjunctive, 
(2)  by  noli  with  the  Infinitive,  (3)  by  cave  with  the  Pres- 
ent or  Perfect  Subjunctive  (§  269. «). 

72.  The  Potential  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  an  action  not 

as  actually  performed,  but  2&  possible  (§  311.  a). 

73.  In  both  Protasis  and  Apodosis  (i)  simple  conditions  take 

the  present  and  past  tenses  of  the  Indicative;  (2)  future 
conditions  take  the  future  and  future  perfect  Indicative 
and  the  present  and  perfect  Subjunctive  ;  (3)  conditions 
contrary  to  fact  take  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  Sub- 
junctive (see  §§  306-311). 

74.  Dum,  mode,  dummodo.  and  tantum,  introducing  a  Proviso, 

take  the  Subjunctive  (§  314). 

75.  Final  clauses  take  the  Subjunctive  introduced  by  ut  (uti), 


IMPORTANT  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


311 


negative  ne  (ut  ne),  or  by  a  Relative  (pronoun  or  adverb) 

(§317)-. 

76.  Consecutive  clauses  take  the  Subjunctive  introduced  by 

ut,  so  that  (negative,  ut  non),  or  by  a  Relative  (pronoun 
or  adverb)  (§  319). 

77.  A  Relative  clause  with  the  Subjunctive  expresses  a  charac- 

teristic  of  the  antecedent  (§  320). 
r  1^.  DIgnus,  indignus,  aptus,  and  idoneus  take  a  clause  of  result 
with  a  relative  (rarely  with  ut)  (§  320./). 
79.  The  Causal  Particles  quod,  quia,  and  quoniam  take  the  In- 
dicative when  the  reason  is  given  on  the  authority  of  the 
speaker  or  writer;  the  Subjunctive  when  the  reason  is 
given  on  the  authority  of  another  (§  321). 

Cum  TEMPORAL,  meaning  when,  takes  the  Imperfect  and 
Pluperfect  in  the  Subjunctive,  other  tenses  in  the  Indica- 
tive (§  325). 

Cum  causal  or  concessive  takes  the  Subjunctive  (§  326). 

An  Indirect  Question    takes  its  verb  in  the  Subjunctive 

(§  334). 
In  the  Indirect  Discourse  the  main  clause  of  a  Declara- 
tory Sentence  is  put  in  the  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accus- 
ative.    All  subordinate    clauses   take   the   Subjunctive 
(§  336.  2). 

84.  In  the  Indirect  Discourse  a  real  question  is  generally  put  in 
the   Subjunctive ;  a  rhetorical  question  in  the  Infinitive 

(§  Zl^)' 

85.  All  Imperative  forms  of  speech  take  the  Subjunctive  in 
Indirect  Discourse  (§  339). 

86.  A  Subordinate  clause  takes  the  Subjunctive  when  it  ex- 
presses the  thought  of  some  other  person  than  the  writer 
or  speaker  {Informal  Indirect  Discourse,  §  341). 

87.  A  clause  depending  on  a  Subjunctive  clause  or  an  equiva- 
lent Infinitive  will  itself  take  the  Subjunctive  if  regarded 
as  an  integral  part  of  that  clause  {Attraction,  §  342). 


80. 


81. 
82. 

83. 


i 


■n-^-.^  -n^rfiitx.  -i  ..Jif  ,tj«.JAg-.W  i 


312 


ORDER    OF  WORDS. 


6.  ORDER  OF  WORDS. 


§§  343.  344-1 


343.  The  Subject  usually  stands  first  in  the  sentence, 
the  Predicate  last.     Thus,  — 

Pausanias  Lacedaemonius  magnus  homo  sed  varius  in  omnl  genere  vltae 
fuit. 

The  verb  is  usually  placed  last  of  ally  after  all  its  modi- 
fiers. But  it  is  often  made  last  but  oney  followed  by  some 
single  word  of  the  predicate. 

344.  In  connected  discourse  the  word  most  prominent 
in  the  speaker's  mind  comes  first,  and  so  on  in  order  of 
prominence,  corresponding  with  the  emphasis  given  in 
English  by  a  graduated  stress  of  voice. 

a.  In  any  phrase  the  determining  and  most  significant  word  comes 
first :  as,  — 

1.  Adjective  and  Noun  :  — 

omnes  homines  decet,  every  man  ought  (opposed  to  some  who  do  not). 

Lucius  Catillna  nobili  genere  natus  fuit  magna  vi  et  animl  et  corporis  sed 
ingenio  malo  pravoque  (Sail.  Cat.  5),  Lucius  Catiline  was  born  of  a 
Ho^hY.  family,  with  i^KY-XT  force  of  mind  and  body,  but  with  a  NATURE 
that  was  evil  and  depraved.  [Here  the  adjectives  in  the  first  part  are 
the  emphatic  words,  no  antithesis  between  the  nouns  being  as  yet 
thought  of ;  but  in  the  second  branch  the  noun  is  meant  to  be 
opposed  to  those  before  mentioned,  and  so  takes  the  prominent 
place.] 

2.  Word  with  modifying  case  :  — 

lacrima  nihil  citius  arescit  (Inv.  i.  109),  nothing  dries  quicker  than  a  tear. 
nemo  fere  laudis  cupidus  (De  Or.  i.  14),  hardly  any  one  desiroi4s  of  G'LOKY 
(cf.  Manil.  7,  avidi  laudis,  eager  for  glory). 

b.  Numeral  adjectives,  adjectives  of  quantity,  demonstrative,  rela- 
tive, and  interrogative  pronouns,  and  adverbs  usually  precede  the 
word  or  words  to  which  they  belong:  as,  — 

cum  aliqua  perturbatione  (Off.  i.  137),  with  some  disturbance. 
hoc  uno  praestamus  (De  Or.  i.  32),  in  this  one  thing  we  excel. 
ceterae  fere  artes,  the  other  arts. 


§  344.] 


ORDER   OF  WORDS. 


313 


c.  When  sum  is  used  as  the  Substantive  verb  (see  §  1 72.  note), 
it  regularly  stands  first,  or  at  any  rate  before  its  subject  :  as,  — 

est  viri  magnl  punire  sontes  (Off.  i.  82),  it  is  the  duty  of  a  great  man  to 
punish  the  guilty. 

d.  The  verb  may  come  first,  or  have  a  prominent  position  either 
(i)  because  the  idea  in  it  is  emphatic  :  as,  — 

dicebat  idem  Cotta  (Off.  ii.  59),  Cotta  used  to  say  the  same  M/w^  (opposed 

to  others'  boasting). 
idem  fecit  adulescens  M.  Antonius  (id.  ii.  49),  the  same  thing  was  done 

by  M.  Antonius  in  his  youth.     [Opposed  to  dixi  just  before.] 

(2)  or  because  the  statement  of  the  idea  is  emphatic  :   as, 

nisi  forte  erunf  dignl  calamitate  (Off.  ii.  62),  unless  perchance  they  really 

DESERVE  their  misfortune.. 
praesertim  cum  scribat  (Panaetius)  (id.  iii.  8),  especially  when  he  does  say 

(in  his  books).     [Opposed  to  something  omitted  by  him.] 

(3)  or  because  the  tense  only  is  emphatic  :  as,  — 

fuimus  Troes,  fuit  Ilium  (^En.  ii.  325),  we  have  ceased  to  be  Trojans,  Troy 
is  now  no  more.  * 

e.  Often  the  connection  of  two  emphatic  phrases  is  brought  about 
by  giving  the  precedence  to  the  most  prominent  part  of  each  and 
leaving  the  less  prominent  to  follow  in  inconspicuous  places  :  as,  — 
plures  solent  esse  causae  (Off.  i.  28),  there  are  usually  several  reasons. 
quos  amisimus  civis  eos  Martis  vis  perculit  (Marc.  17),  what  fellow- 
citizens  we  have  LOST,  have  been  stricken  down  by  the  violence  of  war. 
maximas  tibi  omnes  gratias  agimus  (Marc.  33),  7ve  all  render  you  the 
WARMEST  thanks. 

f.  Antithesis  between  two  pairs  of  ideas  is  indicated  either  (i)  by 
placing  the  pairs  in  the  same  order  {anaphora)  or  (2)  in  exactly  the 
opposite  order  {chiasmus). 

(i)  rerum  copia  verborum  cdpiam  gignit  (De  Or.  iii.  125),  abundance  of 

MXTTEK  produces  copiousness  ^EXPRESSION. 

(2)  leges  supplicio  improbos  afficiunt,  defendunt  ac  tuentur  bonos  (Leg. 
ii.  13),  the  laws  visit  punishments  upon  the  wicked,  but  the  good 
they  DEFEND  and  protect. 

g.  A  modifier  of  a  phrase  or  some  part  of  it  is  often  embodied 
within  the  phrase  (cf.  a)  :  as,  — 

de  communi  hominum  memoria  (Tusc.  i.  59),  in  regard  to  the  universal 
memory  of  man. 


314 


ORDER   OF  WORDS. 


[§  345- 


h.  A  favorite  order  with  the  poets  is  the  interlocked,  by  which  the 
attribute  of  one  pair  comes  between  the  parts  of  another :  as,  — 
et  superiecto  pavidae  natarunt  aequore  damae  (Hor.  Od.  i.  2.  11). 

/.  Frequently  unimportant  words  follow  in  the  train  of  more  em- 
phatic ones  with  which  they  are  grammatically  connected,  and  so 
acquire  a  prominence  out  of  proportion  to  their  importance  :  as,  — 

dictitabat  se  hortulos  aliquos  emere  velle  (Off.  iii.  58),  gave  out  that 
he  wanted  to  buy  some  gardens.  [Here  aliquos  is  less  emphatic  than 
emere,  but  precedes  it  on  account  of  the  emphasis  on  hortulos.] 

j.  The  copula  is  generally  felt  to  be  of  so  little  importance  that  it 
may  come  in  anywhere  where  it  sounds  well  :  but  usually  under 
cover  of  more  emphatic  words  :  as,  — 

consul  ego  quaes! vT,  cum  vos  mihi  essetis  in  consilid  (R.  P.  iii.  28),  as 

consul  I  held  an  investigation  in  which  you  attended  me  in  council. 
falsum  est  id  totum  (id.  ii.  28),  that  is  all  false. 

k.  Many  expressions  have  acquired  an  invariable  order  :  as, — 

res  publica  ;  populus  Rdmanus ;  honoris  causa  ;  pace  tanti  viri. 

Note.  —  Thus,  senatus  populusque  Romanus  (S.  P.  Q.  R.)  originally 
stated  with  emphasis  the  official  bodies,  but  became  fixed  so  as  to  be  the 
only  permissible  form  of  expression. 

/.  The  Romans  had  a  fondness  for  emphasizing  persons,  so  that  a 
name  or  a  pronoun  often  stands  in  an  unduly  emphatic  place  :  as,  — 

[dixit]  venalis  quidem  se  hortos  non  habere  (Off.  iii.  58),  [said]  that 
he  didn't  have  any  gardens  for  sale,  to  be  sure. 

m.  Kindred  words,  as  xwjigiira  etymologica,  often  come  together  : 

ita  sensim  sine  sensu  aetas  senescit  (C.  M.  38),  thus  gradually,  without 
being  perceived,  man's  life  grows  old. 

SPECIAL  RULES. 

346.    The  following  are  special  rules  of  arrangement  : — 

a.  I.  Prepositions  (except  tenns  and  versus)  regularly  precede 
their  nouns  ;  2.  but  a  monosyllabic  preposition  is  often  placed  be- 
tween a  noun  and  its  adjective  or  limiting  genitive  :  as,  — 

quern  ad  modum  ;  quam  ob  rem  ;  magno  cum  metu  ;   omnibus   cum 
copiis  ;  nulla  in  re  (cf.  §  344.  /). 

b.  Itaque  regularly  comes  first  in  its  sentence  or  clause  ;  enim, 
autem,  vero,  quoque,  never  first,  but  usually  second,  sometimes  third 


§  346.] 


STRUCTURE   OF  THE  PERIOD. 


315 


if  the  second  word  is  emphatic  ;  quidem,  never  first,  but  after  the 
emphatic  word  ;  ne  .  .  .  quidem  include  the  emphatic  word  or  words. 

c.  Inquam,  inquit  are  always  used  parenthetically,  following  one 
or  more  words.     So,  often,  credo,  opinor,  and  in  poetry  precor. 

d.  The  negative  precedes  the  word  it  especially  affects  ;  but  if  it 
belongs  to  no  one  word  in  particular,  it  generally  precedes  the  verb  ; 
if  it  is  especially  emphatic,  it  begins  the  sentence. 

e.  In  the  arrangement  of  clauses,  the  relative  clause  often  comes 
first  in  Latin,  and,  if  so,  usually  contains  the  antecedent  noun :   as, 

quos  amisimus  civis,  e5s  Martis  vis  perculit  (Marc.  17),  those  citizens 
whom  we  have  lost,  etc. 

STRUCTURE    OF    THE    PERIOD. 

Note.  — Latin,  unlike  modem  languages,  expresses  the  relation  of 
words  to  each  other  by  inflection  rather  than  \i^  position.  Hence  its  struct- 
ure not  only  admits  of  great  variety  in  the  arrangement  of  words,  but  is 
especially  favorable  to  that  form  of  sentence  which  is  called  a  Period.  In 
a  period,  the  sense  is  expressecj  by  the  sentence  as  a  whole,  and  is  held  m 
suspense  till  the  delivery  of  the  last  word. 

An  English  sentence  does  not  often  exhibit  this  form  of  structure.  It 
was  imitated,  sometimes  with  great  skill  and  beauty,  by  many  of  the 
earher  writers  of  English  prose  ;  but  its  effect  is  better  seen  in  poetry,  in 
such  a  passage  as  the  following  :  — 

"  High  on  a  throne  of  royal  state,  which  far 
Outshone  the  wealth  of  Ormus  and  of  Ind, 
Or  where  the  gorgeous  East,  with  richest  hand. 
Showers  on  her  kings  barbaric  pearl  and  gold, 
Satan  exalted  sat."  — /'rtra^M*-  Lost,  Book  II.  r-5. 

But  in  argument  or  narrative,  the  best  English  writers  more  commonly 
give  short,  clear  sentences,  each  distinct  from  the  rest,  and  saying  one 
thing  by  itself.  In  Latin,  on  the  contrary,  the  story  or  argument  is  viewed 
as  a  whole  ;  and  the  logical  relation  among  all  its  parts  is  carefully  indi- 
cated.    Hence,  — 

346.  In  the  structure  of  the  Period,  the  following 
rules  are  to  be  observed  :  — 

a.  In  general  the  main  subject  or  object  is  put  in  the  main  clause, 
not  in  a  subordinate  one  (according  to  §  344) :  as,  — 

* 

Hannibal  cum  recensuisset  auxilia  Gades  profectus  est,  when  HannibtU 
had  reviewed,  etc. 


i 


3i6 


ORDER   OF  WORDS. 


[§  346. 


b.  Clauses  are  usually  arranged  in  the  order  of  prominence  in  the 
mind  of  the  speaker  ;  so,  usually,  cause  before  result ;  purpose^ 
manner^  and  the  like,  before  the  act. 

c.  \n  co-ordinate  clauses,  the  copulative  conjunctions  are  frequently 
omitted  {asyndeton).  In  such  cases  the  connection  is  made  clear 
by  some  antithesis  indicated  by  the  position  of  words. 

d.  A  change  of  subject,  when  required,  is  marked  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  pronoun,  if  the  new  subject  has  already  been  mentioned. 
But  such  change  is  often  purposely  avoided  by  a  change  in  structure, 
—  the  less  important  being  merged  in  the  more  important  by  the  aid 
of  participles  or  of  subordinate  phrases  :  as,  — 

quem  ut  barbarl  incendium  effugisse  viderunt,  tells  eminus  emissTs  inter- 
fecerunt,  when  the  barbarians  saw  that  he  had  escaped,  THEV  threw 
darts  at  HIM  and  killed  HIM. 

celeriter  confecto  negotid,  in  hiberna  legiones  reverterunt,  the  matter  was 
soon  finished,  and  the  legions,  etc. 

e.  So  the  repetition  of  a  noun,  or  the  substitution  of  a  pronoun  for 
it,  is  avoided,  unless  a  different  case  is  required  :  as,  — 

doldrem  si  n5n  potero  frangere  occultabo,  if  I  cannot  conquer  the  pain,  1 
will  hide  IT.     [Cf.  if  I  cannot  conquer,  I  will  hide  the  pain. '\ 

f.  The  Romans  were  careful  to  close  a  period  with  an  agreeable 
succession  of  long  and  short  syllables.     Thus,  — 

quod  scTs  nihil  prodest,  quod  nescTs  multum  chest  (Or.  166),  what  you 
know  is  of  no  use,  what  you  do  not  know  does  great  harm. 


§  347-] 


GENERAL   RUL^S. 


317 


PART  THIRD.  — PROSODY  (RULES  OF  VERSE). 


1.    QUANTITY. 

I.     General  Rules. 

347.  The  following  are  General  Rules  of  Quantity  (cf. 
§  18):- 

a.  Vowel.  A  vowel  before  another  vowel  or  h  is  short :  as,  via, 
traho. 

Exceptions,  i  .  In  the  genitive  form  -iua,  i  is  long,  except  Usually 
in  alterius.  Thus,  utrius,  nullius.  It  is,  however,  sometimes  made 
short  in  verse  (§  83.  b). 

2.  In  the  genitive  and  dative  singular  of  the  fifth  declension,  e  is 
long  between  two  vowels  :  as,  diei ;  but  it  is  short  in  fidei,  rei,  spei ; 
a  is  long  before  i  in  the  old  genitive  of  the  first  Alension  :  as,  aulai. 

3.  In  the  conjugation  of  fio,  i  is  long  except  when  followed  by  er. 
Thus,  fio,  fiebam,  fiam,  but  fieri,  fiferem ;  so,  also,  fit. 

4.  In  many  Greek  words  the  vowel  in  Latin  represents  a  long 
vowel  or  diphthong,  and  retains  its  original  long  quantity  :  as,  Troes 
(T/oa)£s),  Thalia  (©aXcia),  heroas  (ijpwas),  air  (d7;/o). 

5.  In  eheu  and  dius,  and  sometimes  in  Diana  and  ohe,  the  first 
vowel  is  long. 

b.  Diphthong.    A  Diphthong  is  long  :  as,  foedus,  ciS,  deinde. 

Exception.  The  preposition  prae  in  compounds  is  generally 
shorteiied  before  a  vowel  :  as,  prae-ustis  (^n.  vii.  524),  prae-eunte 
(id.  v.  186). 

c.  Contraction.  A  vowel  formed  by  contraction  {crasis)  is 
long  :  as,  nil,  from  nihil ;  curriis,  genitive  for  curruis. 

But  often  two  syllables  are  united  by  Synaeresis  without  contraction  :  as 
when  pHri&tibfis  is  pronounced  pary^tibus. 

d.  Position.  A  vowel,  though  short,  followed  by  two  consonants 
or  a  double  consonant,  makes  a  long  syllable  :  as,  adventua,  cortex. 


3i3 


QUANTITY. 


[§  348. 


§348.] 


FINAL   SYLLABLES. 


319 


But  if  the  two  consonants  are  a  mute  followed  by  1  or  r,  the  syllable 
may  be  either  long  or  short  {common)  ;  as,  alacris  or  alacris ;  patria 
or  patris. 

Note  i.  —  Any  vowel  before  i  consonant  makes  a  long  syllable  (except 
in  biiugis,  quadiiiugis). 

Note  2.  —  The  compounds  of  iacio,  though  written  with  one  i,  com- 
monly retain  the  long  vowel  of  the  prepositions  with  which  they  are  com- 
pounded, as  if  before  a  consonant,  and  lengthen  the  short  as  if  by  Position. 
(But  how  the  syllables  were  pronounced  is  uncertain.)     Thus,  — 

obicis  hosti  (at  the  end  of  a  hexameter,  ^n.  iv.  549). 

inicit  et  saltu  (at  the  beginning  of  a  hexameter,  Nas..  ix.  552). 

proice  tela  manu  (at  the  beginning  of  a  hexameter,  ^n.  vi.  836). 

Remark.  —  The  y  or  w  sound  resulting  from  synceresis  has  the  effect  of 
a  consonant  in  making  position  :  as,  abietis  (abyetis),  fluvionun  {fluvyorum). 
ConveSely,  when  the  semivowel  becomes  a  vowel,  position  is  lost :  as, 
siltlae,  for  ^vae. 

3.    Pinal  Syllables. 

848.  The  Qu|ntity  of  Final  Syllables  is  determined  by 
the  following  Rules  :  — 

1.  Monosyllables  ending  in  a  vowel  are  long  :  as,  me,  tu,  hi,  ne. 
The  attached  particles  -ne,  -que,  -ve,  -ce,  -pte,  and  re-  (red-)  are 

short ;  se-  is  long.     Thus,  secedit,  ezercituxnque  reducit     But  re- 
is  often  long  in  religio  (relligio),  retuli  (rettuli),  repuli  (reppuU). 

2.  Nouns  and  adjectives  of  one  syllable  are  long  :  as,  sol,  oa 
(oris),  bos,  par,  vis. 

Exceptions,  cor  (sometimes  long),  fel,  lac,  mel,  6s  (ossis),  vir, 
tot,  quot. 

3.  Most  monosyllabic  Particles  are  short :  as,  an,  in,  cis,  nee. 
But  ac,  eras,  cur,  en,  non,  quin,  sin  —  with  adverbs  in  c :  as,  hie, 
hue,  sic  —  are  long. 

4.  Final  a  in  words  declined  by  cases  is  short,  except  in  the  abla- 
tive singular  of  the  first  declension  ;  in  all  other  words  final  a  is  long. 
Thus,  ea  Stella  (nom.),  cum  ea  Stella  (abl.)  ;  frustra,  voca  (imperat.), 
postea,  triglnta. 

Exceptions,  eia,  ita,  quia,  puta  {suppose)  :  and,  in  late  use, 
triglnta,  etc. 


5.  Final  e  is  short,  as  in  niibe,  ducite,  saepe.     Except 

1.  In  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  :  as,  fide  (also  fame),  hodie 
(hoi  die),  quare  (qua  re). 

2.  In  Greek  neuters  plural  of  the  second  declension  :  as,  cite. 

3.  In  adverbs  formed  from  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second 
declension,  with  others  of  like  form  :  as,  alte,  misere,  aperte,  saepis- 
sime.     So,  fere,  ferme,*  probably  of  same  origin. 

4.  In  the  imperative  singular  of  the  second  conjugation  :    as,  vide. 

Exceptions.  To  3:  bene,  male;  infeme,  supeme.  To  4: 
sometimes,  cave,  habe,  tace,  vale,  vide. 

6.  Final  i  is  long  :  as  in  turri,  fili,  audi. 

But  it  is  common  in  mihi,  tibi,  sibi,  ibi,  ubl ;  and  short  in  nisi, 
quasi,  cui  (when  making  two  syllables),  and  in  Greek  vocatives,  as 
Alezl 

7.  Final  o  is  common  ;  but  long  in  datives  and  ablatives,  also, 
almost  invariably,  in  verbs,  and  in  nouns  of  the  third  declension. 

Exceptions,  cito,  modo  (adverb),  iUco,  profecto,  dummodo, 
immo,  ego,  duo,  octo. 

a  Final  u  is  long.     Final  y  is  short. 

9.  Final  as,  es,  os,  are  long  ;  final  is,  us,  ys,  are  short ;  as,  nefas, 
rupes,  servos  (ace),  honos ;  hostis,  amicus,  Tethys. 

Exceptions,  as  is  short  in  Greek  plural  accusatives,  as  lampa- 
dSs;  and  in  anaa 

es  is  short  in  nouns  of  the  third  declension  (lingual)  having  a  short 
vowel  in  the  stem  1 :  as,  mfles  (-itis,  ),  obses  (-idis),  —  except  abies, 
aries,  paries,  pes;  in  the  present  of  esse  (es,  ades)  ;  in  the  prepo- 
sition penes,  and  in  the  plural  of  Greek  nouns,  as  heroes,  lampades. 

OS  is  short  in  compos,  impos ;  in  the  Greek  nominative  ending,  as 
barbitos ;  also,  in  the  old  nominative  ending  of  the  second  declension, 
as  servos  (later,  servus). 

is  in  plural  cases  is  long,  as  in  bonis,  nobis,  vobis,  omnis  (accu- 
sative plural). 

is  is  long  in  fis,  sis,  vis  (with  quivis,  etc.),  velis,  malis,  nolis;  in  ^ 
the  second  person  singular  of  the  fourth    conjugation,  as  audis  and 
sometimes  in  the  forms  in  -erls  (perfect  subjunctive). 

^  The  quantity  of  the  stem-vowel  may  be  seen  in  the  genitive  singular. 


I 


320 


QUANTITY. 


[§§  349»  350- 


§35'.] 


PENULTIMATE  SYLLABLES. 


321 


UB  is  long  (by  contraction)  in  the  genitive  singular  and  nominative, 
accusative,  and  vocative  plural  of  the  fourth  declension  ;  and  in  nouns 
of  the  third  declension  having  u  (long)  in  the  stem  :  as,  virtus  (-utis), 
incus  (-udis).     But,  peciis,  -iidia 

10.  Of  other  final  syllables,  those  ending  in  a  consonant,  except 
-c,  are  short.     Thus,  amat,  amatur ;  but,  istuc,  alec. 

Exceptions,  donee,  fac,  nee,  sometimes  hie ;  aer,  aether,  crater, 
lien,  splen. 

3.    Penultimate  Syllables. 

349.  A  noun  or  adjective  is  said  to  increase,  when  in 
any  case  it  has  more  syllables  than  in  the  nominative 
singular. 

A  verb  is  said  to  increase,  when  in  any  part  it  has 
more  syllables  than  in  the  stem.  Thus,  ama-tis  (stem, 
ama-),   tegi-tis  (stem,  tege-),  capi-unt  (stem,  capi-). 

In  such  words  as  stellarum,  corporis,  amatis,  tegitis,  the  penul- 
timate syllable  is  called  the  increjnent.  In  itineribus,  amaveritis, 
the  syllables  with  the  quantities  marked  are  called  the  first,  second, 
and  third  increments  of  the  noun  or  verb. 

Note.  —  In  such  words  as  luppiter,  ISvis ;  senex,  s6nis,  the  syllables 
whose  vowel-quantity  is  marked  are  called  increments.  These  forms  must 
be  referred  to  lost  nominatives  from  the  same  stems.  So  itineribus  has 
really  only  two  increments  as  from  titinus. 

350.  In  increments  of  Nouns  and  Adjectives,  a  and  o 
are  generally  long;  e,  i,  u,  y,   generally  short:  as, — 

aetas,  aetatis ;  honor,  honoris  ;  servos,  servorum ;  opus,  operis ; 
carmen,  canninis;  murmur,  murmuris;  pecus,  pecudis;  chlamys, 
chlamydis.     Exceptions  are  — 

a:  short  in  baccar  (-aris),  hepar  (-atis).  iubar  (-aris),  lar  (-laris), 
mas  (mSris),  nectar  (-aris),  par  (paris),  sal  (salis),  vas  (vadis), 
daps  (dapis),  fax  (facis),  anthrax  (-acis). 

o  :  short  in  neuters  of  the  third  declension  (except  os,  oris) :  as, 
corpus  (-oris) ;  also  in  arbor  (-oris),  scrobs  (scrobis),  ops  (opis), 
bos  (bovis),  memor  (-oris),  luppiter  (lovis),  Hector  (-oris),  and 
compounds  of  -pus  (as,  tripus,  -podis). 


_  e :  long  in  increments  of  fifth  declension  :  as,  dies,  diei ;  also  in 
heres  (-edis).  lex  (legis),  locuples  (-etis),  merces  (-edis),  plebs 
(plebis),  quies  (-etis),  rex  (regis),  ver  (veris),  crater  (-eris).  But 
see  §  347.  2. 

i :  long  in  most  nouns  and  adjectives  in  ix :  as,  felicis,  radicis 
(except  filix,  nix,  strix) ;  also  in  dis  (ditis),  glis  (gliris),  lis  (litis), 
VIS  (vires),  Quirites,  Samnitea 

u :  long  in  forms  from  nouns  in  -us :  as,  palus,  paliidis ;  tellus, 
teUuris  ;  virtiis,  viri:utis ;  also  in  liix,  lucis ;  [frux],  friigis  ;  fiir,  funs. 

351.  In  the  increment  of  Verbs  the  characteristic 
vowels  are  as  follows:  — 

r.  In  the  first  conjugation  a:  as,  amare,  amatur. 

2.  In  the  second  conjugation  e :  as,  monere,  monetur. 

3.  In  the  third  conjugation  e,  i:  as,  tegere,  tegitur. 
4-  In  the  fourth  conjugation  i :  as,  audire,  auditur. 

Exception,  do  and  its  compounds  have  a:  as,  dare,  circumdSbat 

a.  In  other  verbal  increments  (not  stem-vowels) 

a  is  always  long:  as,  monearis,  tegamus. 
e  is  long :  as,  tegebam,  audiebar. 

Note.  — But  e  is  short  before  -ram,  -rim,  -ro;  in  the  future  personal 
endmgs  -Wris,  -b6re ;  and  sometimes  in  the  perfect  -grunt  (as,  stStgruntque 
comae,  .^n.  ii.  774). 

i  is  long  in  forms  which  follow  the  analogy  of  the  fourth  conjuga- 
tion: as,  petivi,  lacessitus  (in  others,  short:  as,  monitus)  ;  also  in 
the  subjunctive  present  of  esse  and  veUe  (simus,  velimus)  ;  and 
(rarely)  in  the  endings  -rimus,  -ritis.  It  is  short  in  the  future  forms 
amabitis,  etc. 

o  is  found  only  in  imperatives,  and  is  long  :  as,  monetote,  etc. 
u  is  short  in  sumus,  volumus,  quaesumus ;  in  the  Supine  and  its 
derivatives  it  is  long  :  as,  solutiirus. 

^.^ Perfects  and  Supines  of  two  syllables  lengthen  the  first  syllable: 
as,  iuvi  iutum  (iiivo),  vidi,  visum  (video)  ;  fugi  (fiigio). 

^Exceptions,  bibi.  dedi,  fidi.  scidi.  steti,  stiti.  tuU ;  —  citum, 
datum,  itum,  Htum.  quitum,  rStum,  rutum.  satum,  situm,  statum. 
In  some  compounds  of  sto,  statum  is  found  long,  as  prostatum. 


>s^ 


322 


RHYTHM, 


[§§  352-355- 


r.  In  reduplicated  perfects  the  vowel  of  the  reduplication  is  short ; 
the  following  syllable  is,  also,  usually  short :  as,  cecidi  (cado),  didici 
(disco),  pupiigi  (pungo),  cucurri  (curro),  tStendi  (tendo),  momordi 
(mordeo).     But,  cecidi  from  caedo,  pepedi  from  pedo. 

352.  The  following  terminations  are  generally  pre- 
ceded by  a  long  vowel :  — 

1 .  -brum,    -crum,  -tram :  as,  lavacrum,  deliibnun,  veratmm. 

2.  -na«  -ne,  -nis :  as,  Ccurina,  mane,  inanis. 

3.  -re,  -lis,  -ta,  -tis :  as,  altare,  saintaris,  moneta,  ImmitJH. 

353.  The  following  terminations  are  preceded  by  a 
short  vowel  :  — 

1.  -cus,  -dus  (with  some  exceptions), -lus :  as,  riisticus,  calidus, 
gladiolus. 

2.  -tas  (in  nouns),  -ter  and  -tus  (in  adverbs) :  as,  civitas,  fortater, 
penitus. 

3.  -cuius,  -cellus,  -lentus,  -tudo :  as,  fasciculus,  ocellus,  luculen- 
tus,  magnitudo. 

354.  Rules  for  the  quantity  of  Derivatives  are  — 

a.  Forms  from  the  same  Stem  regularly  have  the  same  quantity  : 
as,  amo,  amavisti ;  genus,  geneii& 

b.  Compounds  retain  the  quantity  of  the  words  which  compose 
them  :  as,  oc-cido  (cado),  oc-cido  (caedo),  in-icus  (aecus). 

2.     RHYTHM. 


I.   Measures. 

355.  Rhythm  consists  in  the  recurrence  in  musical 
sound  of  accent  at  regular  intervals.  These  intervals  are 
called  MEASURES  or  feet. 

The  most  natural  measures  of  musical  time  consist  of 
either  two  or  three  equal  parts.  But  the  ancients  also 
distinguished  measures  of  five  parts. 

Remark.  —  In  poetry  these  intervals  are  taken  up  by  enunciated  syllables 
which  in  Latin  have  a  definite  length  or  quantity. 


§§  356-358.] 


THE  MUSICAL   ACCENT. 


323 


a.  The  unit  of  length  in  Prosody  is  one  short  syllable.  This  is 
called  a  Mora.  It  is  represented  by  the  sign  v.,  or  may  be  repre- 
sented m  musical  notation  by  the  quaver  f). 

b.  A  long  syllable  is  regularly  equal  to  two  mor^,  and  is  represented 
by  the  sign  _,  or  may  be  represented  by  the  croUkel  (f). 

356.  The  measures  most  frequently  employed  in  Latin 
verse,  together  with  their  musical  notation,  are  the  follow- 
ing:— 

a.  Triple  or  Unequal  Measures  (f). 

1.  Trochee  (^  ^      =  ^j).  ^s,  re^rs. 

2.  Iambus       (v..  ^      ^  tP''  "^^  '^^'"' 

3.  Tribrach  (,:;  ^  ^  =  t±f">''  ^^^  ^omints. 

b.  Double  or  Equal  Measures  (|). 

1.  Dactyl       (^  ^  w  =  j^  rj*)  :  as,  cdnsulis. 

2.  Anap^st    (  w  w  ^  =  •j^  P  :  as,  monms. 

3.  Spondee    (^  _      ^fP''  ^^'  ''^^^^^ 

For  the  more  complex  measures,  see  larger  grammar. 

857.  In  most  cases  measures  of  the  same  time  may 
be  substituted  for  each  other,  a  long  syllable  taking  the 
place  of  two  short  ones,  or  two  short  ones  the  place  of 

one   long  one.     Thus,  a   Spondee  ( )  may  take  the 

place  of  a  Dactyl  {— ^  ^). 

2.    The  Musical  Accent. 

358.  That  part  of  the  measure  which  receives  the  stress 
of  voice  (the  musical  accent)  is  called  the  Thesis  ;  the 
unaccented  part  is  called  the  Arsis. 

a.  The  stress  of  voice  laid  upon  the  Thesis  U  called  the  Ictus 
{beat).     It  is  marked  thus  :  _^  v^  ^. 


■lilffiiii'ifilt't  r  -"T 


324 


VERS  I  FTC  A  TION. 


[§  359- 


§  360-362.] 


b.  The  ending  of  a  word  within  a  measure  is  called  CiESURA. 
When  this  coincides  with  a  rhetorical  pause,  it  is  called  the  Caesura 
of  the  verse,  and  is  of  main  importance  as  affecting  the  melody  or 
rhythm 

3.     VERSIFICATION. 

THE   VERSE. 

359.  A  single  line  of  poetry  —  that  is,  a  series  of  meas- 
ures (feet)  set  in  a  known  order  —  is  called  a  Verse. 

a.  A  verse  lacking  a  syllable  at  the  end  is  called  Catalectic, 
that  is,  having  a  pause  to  till  the  measure  ;  when  the  end  syllable  is 
not  lacking,  the  verse  is  called  Acatalectic,  and  has  no  such  pause. 

b.  To  divide  the  verse  into  its  appropriate  measures,  according  to 
the  rules  of  quantity  and  versification,  is  called  scanning  or  scansion 
(scansio,  from  scando,  a  climbing  or  advance  by  steps). 

Remark. —  In  reading  verse  rhythmically,  care  should  be  taken  to  pre- 
serve the  measure  or  time  of  the  syllables,  but  at  the  same  time  not  to 
destroy  or  confuse  the  words  themselves,  as  is  often  done  in  scanning. 

c.  In  scanning,  a  vowel  or  diphthong  at  the  end  of  a  word  (unless 
an  interjection)  is  partially  suppressed  when  the  next  word  begins 
with  a  vowel  or  with  h.     This  is  called  Elision. 

In  reading  it  is  usual  entirely  to  suppress  elided  syllables.  Strictly, 
however,  they  should  be  sounded  lightly. 

d.  A  final  -m,  with  the  preceding  vowel,  is  suppressed  in  like  man- 
ner when  the  next  word  begins  with  a  vowel  or  h :  this  is  called 
EcTHLiPSis  :  as,  — 

monstr""*  horrend«w,  Inform^,  ingens,  cui  lumen  ademptum. 

—  yEn.  iii.  658. 

e.  Elision  is  sometimes  omitted  when  a  word  ending  in  a  vowel  has 
a  special  emphasis,  or  is  succeeded  by  a  pause.  This  omission  is 
called  Hiatus.     In  such  cases  the  final  vowel  is  sometimes  shortened. 

/  A  final  syllable,  regularly  short,  is  sometimes  lengthened  before 
a  pause  :  it  is  then  said  to  be  long  by  Diastole :  as,  — 

nostrorww  obruimur,  —  oriturque  miserrima  caedes. 

> 
g.  The  last  syllable  of  a  verse  may  be  either  long  or  short. 


DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER. 


Forms  of  Verse. 


325 


360.  A  verse  receives  its  name  from  its  dominant  or 
fundamental  measure  ;  as,  Dactylic,  Iambic,  Trochaic,  Ana- 
pcBstic;  and  from  the  number  of  measures  (single  or 
double)  which  it  contains  :  as,  Hexameter,  Tetrameter, 
Trimeter,  Dimeter. 

Remark.— Trochaic,  Iambic,  and  Anapaestic  verses  are  measured  not 
by  single  feet,  but  by  pairs  {dipodia),  so  that  six  Iambi  make  a  Trimeter 

361.  A  Stanza,  or  Strophe,  consists  of  a  definite  num- 
ber of  verses  ranged  in  a  fixed  order. 

I.     Dactylic  Hexameter. 

362.  The  Dactylic  Hexameter,  or  Heroic  Verse,  consists 
theoretically  of  six  dactyls.    It  may  be  represented  thus  :— 


—  \j  \j  \  J-  \j  \j 


\^    -^    \    -L    ^^    KJ    \    J.    KJ    ^^     \    J^'^ 


or  in  musical  notation  as  follows  : 

ircj'irt;iriCj^:'c;irc;irpi| 

rt.  For  any  one  of  the  feet,  except  the  fifth,  a  spondee  may  be 
substituted.  The  last  foot  is  a  trochee  standing  for  a  dactyl,  but  the 
final  syUable  is  not  measured,  and  the  foot  is  called  a  spondee. 

Rarely  a  spondee  is  found  in  the  fifth  place  ;  the  verse  is  then 
called  spondaic.  Thus  in  Eel.  iv.  49  the  verse  ends  with  incrementum. 

b.  The  hexameter  has  always  one  principal  ccssura —  somtXimts 
two  — almost  always  accompanied  by  a  pause  in  the  sense. 

The  principal  caesura  is  usually  after  the  thesis  (masculine),  less 
commonly  in  the  arsis  (feminine)  of  the  third  foot,  dividing  the 
verse  into  two  parts. 

It  may  also  be  after  the  thesis  (less  commonly  in  the  arsis)  of  the 
fourth  foot.  In  this  case  there  is  often  another  c^sura  in  the  second 
foot,  so  that  the  verse  is  divided  into  three  parts  instead  of  two  :  as,  — 

parte  fe  |  rox  ||  ar  |  densqu^  ocu  |  lis  ||  et  |  sibfla  |  colla.  —jEn.  v.  277. 

Remark.  —  Often  the  only  indication  of  the  principal  among  a  number 
of  caesuras  is  the  break  in  the  sense. 


v^ 


326 


VERSIFICA  TION. 


[§  Z^Z- 


c.  The  introductory  verses  of  the  i^neid,  divided  according  to  the 
foregoing  rules,  will  appear  as  follows.  The  principal  caesura  in  each 
verse  is  marked  by  double  lines  :  — 

Arma  vi  |  rumque  ca  J  no  ||  Tro  i  iae  qui  |  primus  ab  |  oris 

Itali  I  am  fa  I  to  prof u  |  gus  ||  La  |  vln/aque  |  venit 

iTtora,  j  mult«w  ilk  |  et  ter  |  ris  ||  iae  |  tatiis  et  |  alto 

vl  siipe  j  rum  sae  |  vae  1|  memo  |  rem  lu  |  nonis  6b  |  Tram  ; 

multa  quo  |  qu^  et  bel  ,  16  pas  |  sus  ||  dum  |  conderet  |  urbem, 

infer  j  retque  de  i  6s  Lati  j  6,  ||  genus  |  unde  La  |  tinum, 

Alba  i  nique  pa  j  tres,  1|  at  |  qu^  altae  |  moenia  |  R6mae. 

Tht  feminine  casura  is  seen  in  the  following  :  — 

Dis  geni  \  ti  potu  ;  ere  :  jj  te  |  nent  medi   a  omnia  j  silvae. 

—  Ain.  vi.  131. 

2.    Elegiac  Stanza. 

363.  The  Elegiac  Stanza  consists  cf  two  lines,  —  an 
hexameter  followed  by  a  pentameter. ^ 

The  Pentameter  verse  is  the  same  as  the  hexameter, 
except  that  it  omits  the  last  half  of  the  third  foot  and  of 
the  sixth  foot.     Thus, — 

rdrlrdrlr  A^u\^u\r 

a.  The  Pentameter  verse  is  thus  to  be  scanned  as  two  half-verses, 
the  second  of  which  always  consists  of  two  dactyls  followed  by  a 
single  syllable. 

b.  The  Pentameter  has  no  Caesura  ;  but  the  first  half-verse  must 
always  end  with  a  word,  followed  by  a  pause  to  complete  the  measure.^ 

c.  The  following  verses  will  illustrate  the  forms  of  the  Elegiac 
Stanza  :  — 

1  Called  pentameter  by  the  old  grammarians,  who  divided  it,  formally, 
into  five  feet  (two  dactyls  or  spondees,  a  spondee,  and  two  anapaests),  as 
follows  :  — 


^  \j 


w  \j 


\j  <y 


w  \^ 


*  The  time  of  this  pause,  however,  may  be  filled  by  the  protraction  of 
the  preceding  syllable  :  thus,  — 


—  \j  \j 


^  \j  \y—x 


II 


w  \j 


I- 


\j  \j 


I-  A 


§§  364-376.] 


RECKONING   OF   TIME. 


327 


cum  subit  |  illi  {  us  tris  |  tissima  j  noctis  i  I  mago 

qua  mihi  |  supre  j  mum  A   II  tempus  in  |  urbe  fu  |  it, 
cum  repe  i  t6  noc  |  tem  qua  |  tot  mihi  |  cara  re  |  liqui, 

labitur  I  ex  ocu  j  lis  7\   ||  nunc  quoque  |  gutta  me  |  is. 
lam  prope  |  Ixix  ade  |  rat  qua  |  me  dis  |  cedere  |  Caesar 
finibus  j  extre  [  mae  A  II  iusserat  |  Ausoni  |  ae. 

—  Ovid,  Trist.  i.  3. 

364-375.  For  these  sections  showing  other  forms  of  verse,  and 
for  the  metres  of  Horace,  see  the  larger  grammar. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

I.     RECKONING  OF  TIME. 

Note.  —  The  Roman  Year  was  designated,  in  earlier  times,  by  the 
names  of  the  Consuls ;  but  was  afterwards  reckoned  from  the  building  of 
the  City  {ab  urbe  conditd,  anno  urbis  conditae),  the  date  of  which  was 
assigned  by  Varro  to  a  period  corresponding  with  B.C.  753.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  reduce  Roman  dates  to  those  of  the  Christian  era,  the  year  of 
the  city  is  to  be  subtracted  from  7,54:  e.g.  A.U.C.  691  =B.c.  63. 

Before  Caesar's  reform  of  the  Calendar  (B.C.  46),  the  Roman  year  con- 
sisted of  355  days  ;  March,  May,  Quintilis  (July)^  and  October  having  each 
31  days  ;  February  having  28,  and  each  of  the  remainder  29.  The  "  Julian 
year,"  by  Caesar's  reformed  Calendar,  had  365  days,  divided  into  months 
as  at  present.  Every  fourth  year  the  24th  of  February  (vi.  kal.  Mart.)  was 
counted  twice,  giving  29  days  to  that  month  :  hence  the  year  was  called 
Bissextilis.  The  month  Quintilis  received  the  name  lUlius  (July),  in 
honor  of  JuUus  Caesar  ;  and  Sextilis  was  called  Augustus  (August),  in 
honor  of  his  successor.  The  Julian  year  (see  below)  remained  unchanged 
till  the  adoption  of  the  Gregorian  Calendar. 

376.  Dates,  according  to  the  Roman  Calendar,  are 
reckoned  as  follows  :  — 

a.  The  frst  day  of  the  month  was  called  Kalendae  (Calends). 

b.  On  ihtffteenth  day  of  March,  May,  July,  and  October,  but  the 
thirteenth  of  the  others,  were  the  Idus  {Ides),  the  day  of  P'ull  Moon. 

c.  On  the  seventh  day  of  March,  May,  July,  and  October,  but  the 
ffth  of  the  other  months,  were  the  Nonae  {Nones  or  ninths). 

d.  From  the  three  points  thus  determined,  the  days  of  the  month 
were  reckoned  backwards,  as  so  many  days  before  the,  Nones,  the 
Ides,  or  the  Calends.  The  point  of  departure  was,  by  Roman  custom, 
counted  in  the  reckoning,  the  second d2iy  being  three  days  before,  etc. : — 


328 


MISCELLANEOUS, 


[§  376. 


Hence  if  the  given  date  be  Calends,  add  two  to  the  number  of  days 
in  the  month  preceding,  —  if  Nones  or  Ides,  add  one  to  that  of  the  day 
on  which  they  fall, —  and  from  this  sum  subtract  the  given  date  :  thus, — 

viii.  Kal.  Feb.  (33-8)  =  Jan.  25. 
iv.  Non.  Mar.  (8-4)  =  Mar.  4. 
iv.  Id.  Sept.  (14-4)  =  Sept.  10. 

e.  The  days  of  the  Roman  month  by  the  Julian  Calendar,  as  thus 
ascertained,  are  given  in  the  following  Table  :  — 


January. 

February. 

March 

. 

April. 

I. 

Kal.  Ian. 

Kal 

.  Feb. 

Kal 

.Ma 

rtiae 

Kal. 

Apriles 

2. 

IV.  N5n. 

Ian. 

IV.  Non.  Feb. 

VI.  Non. 

Mart. 

IV.  Non.  Apr 

. 

3- 

III.    " 

ti 

III. 

((        tt 

V. 

« 

i( 

III. 

(i 

u 

4- 

prid. " 

K 

prid. 

((        (( 

IV. 

(( 

<< 

prid. 

(( 

ti 

5- 

NoN.  Ian. 

NON 

.  Feb. 

III. 

<( 

u 

NON 

Apriles 

6. 

VIII.  Id. 

[an. 

VIII. 

Id.  Feb 

. 

prid. 

<i 

(( 

VIII. 

Id.  Apr 

7- 

VII.      " 

VII. 

((       (( 

NoN  Martiae 

VII. 

(( 

8. 

VI.        " 

VI. 

i(       t( 

VIII. 

Id.  Mart. 

VI. 

it 

9- 

V.         " 

V. 

((       i( 

VII. 

V. 

^i 

10. 

IV.        " 

IV. 

((       <( 

VI. 

IV. 

ti 

II. 

III.      " 

III. 

((       (( 

V. 

III. 

li 

12. 

prid.  " 

prid. 

((       « 

IV. 

prid. 

n 

13- 

Idus Ian. 

IdUs 

Feb. 

III. 

Idus  Apriles. 

14. 

XIX.  Kal. 

Feb 

.  XVI. 

Kal.  Martias 

prid. 

XVIII 

.  Ka] 

.  Maias. 

15- 

XVIII.  " 

i4 

XV. 

(( 

t< 

Idus 

Martiae 

XVII. 

ti 

16. 

XVII.     " 

U 

XIV. 

(( 

(( 

XVII. 

Kal 

.  A  prills 

.  XVI. 

ti 

17- 

XVI.      " 

«< 

XIII. 

(( 

(( 

XVI. 

(( 

<( 

XV. 

if 

18. 

XV.        " 

(( 

XII. 

(( 

(i 

XV. 

(< 

(( 

XIV. 

it 

19. 

XIV.      " 

« 

XI. 

(< 

<i 

XIV. 

t( 

(( 

XIII. 

ti 

20. 

XIII.    '• 

X. 

« 

(( 

XIII, 

(( 

t( 

XIL 

it 

21. 

XII.       " 

(( 

IX. 

{< 

<( 

XII. 

<( 

(( 

XI. 

<. 

22. 

XI.         " 

(t 

VIII. 

(( 

(( 

XI. 

u 

« 

X. 

ti 

23- 

X. 

VII. 

« 

<( 

X. 

<( 

« 

IX. 

ik 

24. 

IX. 

<t 

VI. 

<« 

t( 

IX. 

(( 

<( 

VIII. 

u 

25. 

VIII.     " 

V, 

<( 

it 

VIII. 

(( 

(( 

VII. 

it 

26. 

VII.       " 

(( 

IV. 

« 

« 

VII. 

i( 

<( 

VI. 

a 

27. 

VI.          " 

<t 

in. 

«< 

(( 

VI. 

<( 

« 

V. 

it 

28. 

V. 

(< 

prid. 

<{ 

K 

V. 

(( 

i( 

IV. 

ti 

29. 

IV.         " 

(t 

[prid 

Kal  Mart. 

IV. 

(t 

(( 

III. 

ii 

30- 

III.      " 

(( 

in  leap-year, 

the 

III. 

it 

i< 

prid. 

it 

31- 

prid.    " 

<( 

vi.  Kal. (24th)  being  prid. 

« 

(( 

(So  J 

une, 

Sept., 

(So.  Aug.,  Dec.)     counted  twice.]        (So  May,  July,Oct.)     Nov.) 


§§  yn^  380.1 


MEASURES   OF  VALUE. 


329 


Note.  —  Observe  that  a  date  before  the  Julian  Reform  (b.c.  46)  would  be 
found  not  by  the  above  table,  but  by  taking  the  earlier  reckoning  of  the 
number  of  days  in  the  month. 

II.     MEASURES  OF  VALUE,  ETC. 

377.  The  money  of  the  Romans  was  in  early  times  wholly  of  cop- 
per.  The  unit  was  the  aa,  nominally  a  pound  in  weight,  but  actually 
somewhat  less.     It  was  divided  into  twelve  unciae  {ounces). 

In  the  third  century  B.C.  the  as  was  gradually  reduced  to  one-half 
of  its  original  value  In  the  same  century  sijver  coins  were  intro- 
duced,—the  Denarius  =10  asses  ;  and  the  Sestertius  =  2^^  asses. 

378.  The  Sestertius  was  probably  introduced  at  a  time  when  the 
as  had  been  so  far  reduced  that  the  value  of  the  new  coin  (2^  asses) 
was  equivalent  to  the  original  value  of  the  aa  Hence,  the  Sestertius 
(usuaUy  abbreviated  to  IIS  or  HS)  came  to  be  used  as  the  unit  of 
value,  and  nummus,  coin,  often  means  simply  sestertius.  As  the 
reduction  of  the  standard  went  on,  the  sestertius  became  equivalent  to 
4  asses.  Gold  was  introduced,  later,  the  aureus  being  equal  to  100 
sesterces.     The  value  of  these  coins  is  seen  in  the  following  table:  — 

2\  asses  =  I  sestertius  or  nummus  (hs),  value  nearly  5  cents. 
10    asses  or  4  sestertii  =  I  denarius     .     .       «'        "      20  cents. 

1000    sestertii  =  I  sestertium «         "      Sqooo 

Note.  — The  word  sesteri:ius  is  a  shortened  form  of  semis-tertius  the 
third  one,  a  half.  The  abbreviation  IIS  or  HS  =  duo  at  semis,  2  i,  two  and 
a  half. 

^379.  The  Sestertium  (probably  originally  the  genitive  plural  of 
sestertius)  was  a  sum  of  money,  not  a  coin  ;  the  word  is  inflected 
regularly  as  a  neuter  noun  :  thus,  tria  sestertia  =  $150.00. 

When  sestertium  was  combined  with  a  numeral  adverb,  centena 
mtlia  {hundreds  of  thousands)  was  originally  understood  :  thus 
deciens  sestertium  {deciens  hs)  ==  $50,000.  But  later  sestertium  was 
mflected  as  a  neuter  singular,  as  deciens  sestertio,  etc.. 

In  the  statement  of  large  sums  sestertium  is  often  omitted  :  thus 
sexdgiens  (Rose.  Am.  2)  signifies,  sexdgiens  {centena  milial  ^^^t^r- 
tium  (6,000,000  sesterces)  =  $300,000  (nearly). 

380.  In  the  statement  of  sums  of  money  in  cipher,  a  line  above 
the  number  indicates  thousands  ;  lines  above  and  at  the  sides  also, 
hundred-thousands.  Thus  hs.  dc.  =  600  sestertii;  hs.  dc  J 
600,000  sestertii,  or  600  sestertia;  hs.  |i5^  =  60,000,000  sistertit 


330 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


[§§  381-384. 


881.     The  Roman  Measures  of  Length  are  the  following  :  — 

12  inches  {uncia€)=  i  Roman  Foot  {pes:  11.65  English  inches), 
i^  Feet  =  I  Cubit  {cubitum).  —  2\  Feet=i  Degree  or  Step  {gradus). 
5  Feet  =  I  Pace  {passus). —  1000  Paces  {mille passuum)=i  Mile. 

The  Roman  mile  was  equal  to  4850  English  feet. 
The  liigerum^  or  unit  of  measure  of   land,  was  an  area  of  240 
(Roman)  feet  long  and  120  broad  ;  a  little  less  than  |  of  an  English 
acre. 

382.     The  Measures  of  Weight  are  — 

12  unciae  {ounces)  ^=  i  Pound  {libra,  about  |  lb.  avoirdupois). 

Fractional  parts  (weight  or  coin)  are  — 


I. 

(tV)'  t*^*'^- 

5- 

(A)»  Quincunx. 

9- 

(1),  dodrdns. 

2. 

{\),  sextdns. 

6. 

(1),  semissis. 

10. 

(1),  dextdns. 

3- 

(}),  quadrdns. 

7- 

(/]?)'  septunx. 

II. 

(H),  deunx. 

4- 

(J),  triens. 

8. 

(1),  bessis. 

12. 

as. 

The  Talent  {talentum)  was  a  Greek  weight  {r6.\avTov)  =  60  librae. 

383.  The  Measures  of  Capacity  are  — 

12  cyathi   =  I  sextdrius  (nearly  a  pint). 
16  sextaril=  i  modius  (peck). 

6  sextarii  =  i  congius  (3  quarts,  liquid  measure). 

8    congiI=i  amphora  (6  gallons). 

384.  The  following  are  some  of  the  commonest  abbreviations 
found  in  Latin  inscriptions  and  sometimes  in  editions  of  the  classic 
authors. 


\ 


A.,  absoivOf  antiquo. 

A.  U.,  anno  urbis. 

A.  U.  c,  ab  urbe  conditd. 

C,  condemno,  comitidlis. 
COS.,  consul  {consule). 
coss.,  consules  {cdnsulibus). 
D.,  divus. 

D.  D.,  dono  dedit. 

D.  D.  D.,  daty  dicat,  dedicat. 

des.,  designdtus. 

D.  M.,  dii  mdnes. 

eq.  Rom.,  eques  Romdnus. 


¥.,  filius,  fdstus. 

Ictus.,  iHrisconsultus. 

Id.,  Idas. 
1  imp.,  imperdtor. 

I.  O.  M,,  lovl  Optimo  mdximd. 
,K.,  Kal.,  Kalendae. 
N  N.,  nepds,  ne fdstus. 

N.  L.,  non  liquet. 

P.  C,  patres  conscrtpti. 

pi.,  pubis. 

pont.  max.,  pontifex  mdximus. 

pop.,  populus. 


§  384.] 


MEASURES  OF  VALUE, 


331 


P.  'K.,  populus  Rdmdnus, 
pr.,  praetor. 
.  proc,  procdnsul. 
^  Q.  B.  F.  F.  Q.  s.,  quod  bonum  felix 
faustumque  sit. 
Quir.,  Quirttes. 
resp.,  respHblica,  respondet. 
S.,  salatem,  sacrum,  sendtus. 


J 


s.  c,  sendtHs  consultum. 
S.  D.  p.,  salutem  dicit  plUrimam.  ^ 
S.  P.  Q.  R.,  Sendtus  Populusque  Ro- 
mdnus. 

s.  V.  B.  E.  E.  v.,  si  vales  bene  est,  ego 

valeo. 
pi.  tr.,  tribUnus  plebis. 
U.  (u.  R.),  uti  rogds. 


§  3^6] 


GLOSSARY. 


333 


GLOSSARY 

OF    TERMS    USED    Ix\    GRAMMAR,    RHETORIC,    AND    PROSODY. 


-*+« 


Note.  —  Many  of  these  terms'  are  pedantic  names  given  by  early  gram- 
marians to  forms  of  speech  used  naturally  by  writers  who  were  not  con- 
scious that  they  were  using  figures  at  all  —  as,  indeed,  they  were  not.  Thus, 
when  one  says,  "  It  gave  me  no  little  pleasure,"  he  is  unconsciously  using 
Litotes  ;  when  he  says,  "  John  went  up  the  street,  James  down,"  Antithesis  ; 
when  he  says,  "  High  as  the  sky,"  Hyperbole.  Many  were  given  under  a 
mistaken  notion  of  the  nature  of  the  usage  referred  to.  Thus  med  and  ted 
(§  98.  c)  were  supposed  to  owe  their  d  to  Paragoge,  sumpsi  its  p  to  Epeu- 
thesis.  Such  a  sentence  as  "  See  my  coat,  how  well  it  fits  !  "  was  supposed 
to  be  an  irregularity  to  be  accounted  for  by  Prolepsis. 

Many  of  these,  however,  are  convenient  designations  for  phenomena 
which  often  occur ;  and  most  of  them  have  a  historic  interest,  of  one  kind 
or  another. 

385.     I.  Grammatical  Terms. 

Anacoluthon  :  a  change  of  construction  in  the  same  sentence,  leav- 
ing the  first  part  broken  or  unfinished. 

Anastrophe :  inversion  of  the  usual  order  of  words. 

Apodosis :  the  conclusion  of  a  conditional  sentence  (see  Protasis). 

Archaism :  an  adoption  of  old  or  obsolete  forms. 

Asyndeton :  omission  of  conjunctions  (§  208.  ^). 

Barbarism  :  adoption  o^foreign  or  unauthorized  forms. 

Br  achy  logy :  brevity  of  expression. 

Crasis:  contraction  of  two  vowels  into  one  (§  10.  c). 

Ellipsis:  omission  of  a  word  or  words  necessary  to  complete  the 
sense  (§  177.  note). 

Enallage:  substitution  of  one  word  or  form  for  another. 

Epenthesis :  insertion  of  a  letter  or  syllable  (§11.  r). 

Hellenism  ;  use  of  Greek  forms  of  constructions. 

Hendiadys  (iv  8ia  Svoiv)  :  the  use  of  two  nouns,  with  a  conjunc- 
tion, instead  of  a  single  modified  noun. 


Hypallage :  interchange  of  constructions. 

Hysteron  proteron :  a  reversing  of  the  natural  order  of  ideas. 

Applied  to  cases  where  the  natural  sequence  of  events  is  violated  in 
language  because  the  later  event  is  of  more  importance  than  the  earUer 
and  so  comes  first  to  the  mind.  This  was  supposed  to  be  an  artificial 
embellishment  in  Greek,  and  so  was  imitated  in  Latin.  It  is  still  found  in 
artless  narrative  ;  cf.  "  Bred  and  Born  in  a  Brier  Bush  "  (Uncle  Remus). 

Metathesis :  transposition  of  letters  in  a  word  (§  11.^/).  

Paragoge :  addition  of  a  letter  or  letters  to  the  end  of  a  word. 
Parenthesis  :  insertion  of  a  phrase  interrupting  the  construction. 
Periphrasis  :  a  roundabout  way  of  expression  {circumlocution). 

Pleonasm :  the  use  of  needless  words. 

Polysyndeton  :  the  use  of  an  unnecessary  number  of  copulative  con-    — 
junctions. 

Prolepsis :  the  use  of  a  word  in  the  clause  preceding  the  one  where     J 

it  yfO\^\djid^M^^_^^j^t^{anticipcnion). ^ 

Protasis :  a  clause  introduced  by  a  conditional  expression  (//,  when, 

whoever),  leading  to  a  conclusion  called  the  Apodosis  (§  304). 
Syncope :  omission^f.^etter  or  syllable  from  the  middle  of  a  word,  y/ 
Synesis  (cons tr actio  ad  sensum)  :  agreement  of  words  according  to 

the  sense,  and  not  the  grammatical  form  (§  182). 
Tmesis :  the  separation  of  two  parts  of  a  compound  word  by  other     — 

words  (cutting). 
Zeugma :  the  use  of  a  verb  with  two  different  words,  to  only  one  of — 

which  it  strictly  applies  (yoking). 

386.     II.  Rhetorical  Figures. 

Allegory:   a   narrative    in    which    abstract   ideas   figure  as  circum-  •^ 
stances,  events,  or  persons,  in  order  to  enforce  some  moral  truth. 

Alliteration  :   the  use  of  several   words  that  begin   with  the  same 
sound. 

Analogy  :  argument  from  resemblances. 

Anaphora  :    the  repetition  of  a  word  at  the  beginning  of  successive    --^ 
clauses  (§  344./). 

Antithesis  :  opposition,  or  contrast  of  parts  (for  emphasis,  §  344). 

Antonomasia :  use  of  a  proper  for  a  common  noun,  or  the  reverse. 

Aposiopesis :  an  abrupt  pause  for  rhetorical  effect. 

Catachresis :  a  harsh  metaphor  (abUsio,  misuse  of  words). 


I 


334 


GLOSSARY. 


[§  387. 


.  Chiasmus:  a  reversing  of  the  order  of  words  in  corresponding  pairs. 
-  Climax :  a  gradual  increase  of  emphasis,  or  enlargement  of  meaning. 
-'  Euphemism :  the  mild  expression  of  a  painful  or  repulsive  idea. 
^Euphony :  the  choice  of  words  for  their  agreeable  sound. 

Hyperbaton :  violation  of  the  usual  order  of  words. 

Hyperbole  :  exaggeration  for  rhetorical  effect. 

Irony :  the  use  of  words  which  naturally  convey  a  sense  contrary  to 
what  is  meant. 

Litotes :  the  affirming  of  a  thing  by  denying  its  contrary  (§  209.  c). 

Metaphor :  the  figurative  use  of  words,  indicating  an  object  by  some 
resemblance. 

Metonymy :  the  use  of  the  name  of  one  thing  to  indicate  some  kin- 
dred thing. 

Onomatoposia :  a  fitting  of  sound  to  sense  m  the  use  of  words. 

Oxymoron :  the  use  of  contradictory  words  in  the  same  phrase. 

Paronomasia  :  the  use  of  words  of  like  sound. 

Prosopopoeia :  personification. 

Synchysis  :  the  interlocked  order  (§  344.  /;). 

Synecdoche:  the  use  of  the  name  of  a  part  for  the  whole  or  the 
reverse. 


887.     III.  Terms  of  Prosody. 

Acaialectic :  complete,  as  a  verse  or  a  series  of  feet  (§  359.  «). 
Anaclasis :  breaking  a  rhythm  by  substituting  different  measures. 
Anacrusis  :  the  unaccented  syllable  or  syllables  preceding  a  verse 
Antistrophe :  a  series  of  verses  corresponding  to  one  which  has  go 

before  (cf.  strophe^. 
Arsis :  the  unaccented  part  of  a  foot  (§  358). 
Basis :  a  single  foot  preceding  the  regular  movement  of  a  verse. 
Ccssura :  the  ending  of  a  word  within  a  metrical  foot  (§  358.  b^. 
Catalexis :  loss  of  a  final  syllable  (or  syllables)  making  the  series 

catalectic  (incomplete,  §  359.  a). 
Contraction:  the  use  of  one  long  syllable  for  two  short  (§  357). 
Correption :  shortening  of  a  long  syllable  for  metrical  reasons. 
Diaresis .-  the  coincidence  of  the  end  of  a  foot  with  the  end  of  a 

word  (§  358.  c). 
Dialysis:  the  use  of  i  (consonant)  and  v  as  vowels  {silUa  =silva).    i 
Diastole :  the  lengthening  of  a  short  syllable  by  emphasis  (§  359/)      ■ 


§  387.] 


GLOSSARY. 


335 


Dimeter :  consisting  of  two  like  measures. 

Dipody  ;  consisting  of  two  like  feet. 

Distich :  a  system  or  series  of  two  verses. 

Ecthlipsis :  the  s;Lippression  of  a  final  syllable  in  -m  before  a  word 

beginning  with  a  vowel  (§  359.  d). 
Elision :  the  cutting  off  of  a  final  before  a  following  initial  vowel. 
Heptameter :  consisting  of  seven  feet. 
Hexameter  :  consisting  of  six  measures. 
Hexapody :  consisting  of  six  feet. 

Hiatus  :  the  meeting  of  two  vowels  without  contraction  or  elision. 
Ictus :  the  metrical  accent  (§  358.  <z). 

Irrational:  not  conforming  strictly  to  the  unit  of  time  (§  356.  note). 
Logaoedic  :  varying  in  rhythm,  making  the  effect  resemble  prose. 
Monometer  :  consisting  of  a  single  measure. 
Mora:  the  unit  of  time  =  one  short  syllable  (§  355.  d). 
Pentameter :  consisting  of  five  measures. 
Pentapody :  consisting  of  five  feet. 
Penthemimeris  :  consisting  of  five  half-feet. 
Protraction :  extension  of  a  syllable  beyond  its  normal  length. 
Resolution:  the  use  of  two  short  syllables  for  one  long  (§  357). 
Strophe :    a   series   of  verses    making  a  recognized  metrical  whole 

{stanza^,  which  may  be  indefinitely  repeated. 
Synaresis :  i  (vowel)  and  u  becoming  consonants  before  a  vowel. 
Synaloepha :  the  same  as  elision  (§  359.  c.  Rem.). 
Synapheia :  elision  between  two  verses  (§  359.  c.  Rem.). 
Synizesis :  the  combining  of  two  vowels  in  one  syllable  (§  347.  r). 
Syncope  :  loss  of  a  short  vowel. 
Systole :  shortening  of  a  syllable  regularly  long. 
Tetrameter :  consisting  of  four  measures. 
Tetrapody  :  consisting  of  four  feet. 
Tetrastich  :  a  system  of  four  verses. 
Thesis:  the  accented  part  of  a  foot  (§  358). 
yimeter :  consisting  of  three  measures. 
Vipody :  consisting  of  three  feet.  . 

Vis  tic  h  :  a  system  of  three  verses. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


USED    IN    CITING    AUTHORS    AND   THEIR   WORKS. 


*im« 


INDEX   OF  WORDS   AND  SUBJECTS. 


Caesar  : 

B.  C,  Bellum  Civile. 
B.  G.,  Bellum   Galli- 
cum. 

B.  Afr.,  Bellum  Afri- 
canum. 

CatuU.,  Catullus. 
Cic,  Cicero  : 

Ac,     Acad.,     Acade- 
mic a. 

A  rch  .y  pro  A  rch  ia . 

Att.,  ad  Atticum. 

Cxc.,/>ro  Caecina. 

Cdd.y  pro  M.  Caelio. 

Cat.,  in  Catilinam. 

Clu.f  pro  Cluentio. 

C.  M.,  Cato  Major. 
Deiot.,  pro  Deiotaro. 
De  Or.,  de  Oratore. 
Div.,  de  Divinatione. 
Caecil.,    Divinatio   in 

Caecilium. 
Fam.,  ad  Familiares. 
Fat.,  de  Fato. 
Fin.,  de  Finibus. 
Flzc.f  pro  Flacco. 
Font.,  pro  AT.  Fonteio. 
Ad   Her.   \ad  Heren- 

nium\ 
Inv.,  de  Inventione. 
Lael.,  Laelius. 
Legg.,  de  Legibus. 
Agr.,  de  Lege  Agraria. 
Lig.,  pro  Ligario. 
Manil.,  pro  Lege  Ma- 

nilia. 
Marc,  pro  Marcello. 


Mil.,  pro  Milone. 

Mur.,  pro  Murerta. 

N.  D.,  de  Natura  Deo- 
rum. 

Off.,  de  OJiciis. 

Or.,  Orator. 

Par.,  Paradoxa. 

Part.    Or.,   de    Parti- 
tione. 

Phil.,  Philippicae. 

Plane,  pro  Plancio. 

Pis.,  in  Pisonem. 

Quinct., /r^  Quinctio. 

Q.  Fr.,  ad  Q.  Fratrem. 

Rabir.,  pro  Rabirio. 

Rep.,  de  Republica. 

Rose  Am.,  pro  Roscio 
Amerino. 

Rose  Cora.,pro  Roscio 
Comoedo. 

Sest.,  pro  Sestio. 

Sulla,  pro  Sulla. 

Top.,  Topica. 

Tusc,  TusculanaeDis- 
putationes. 

Univ.,  de  Universo. 

Vatin.,  in  Vatinium. 

Verr.,  in  Verrem. 
Hor.,  Horace  : 

A.  P.,  de  Arte  Poetica. 

Ep.,  Epistulae. 

Epod.,  Epodes. 

Od.,  Odes. 

Sat.,  Satires. 
Juv.,  Juvenal. 
Liv.,  Livy. 
Lucr.,  Lucretius. 


I  Mart.,  Martial. 
Nep.,  Nepos. 
Ov.,  Ovid  : 

F.,  Fasti. 

M.,  Metamorphoses. 

ex    P.,   Epistulae    ex 
Ponto. 

Trist.,  Tristia. 
Pers.,  Persius. 
Plaut.,  Plautus. 
Plin.,  Pliny,  senior  : 

H.  N.,  Historia  Natu- 
ralis. 
Plin.,  Pliny,  junior  : 
!      Ep.,  Epistulae. 
Prop.,  Propertius. 
Q.  C,  Q.  Curtius. 
Quint.,  Quintilian. 
Sail.,  Sallust : 

Cat.,  Catilina. 

]ng.,/ugurtha. 
Sen.,  Seneca  : 

Ep.,  Epistulae. 

Q.     N.,      Quaestiones 
Naturales. 
Sil.  It.,  Silius  Italicus. 
Suet.,  Suetonius. 
Tac,  Tacitus  : 

Agr.,  Agricola. 

A.,  Ann.,  Annales. 

H.,  Historiae. 
Ter.,  Terence. 
Virg.,  Virgil : 

i^n.,  yEneid. 

E.,  Eclogae. 

G.,  Georgica. 


-►«H^ 


Note.  -The  numerical  references  are  to  sections,  with  a  few  exceptions  in  which  the 
page  (p.)  IS  re  erred  to.  The  letters  refer  to  subsections.  The  letter  n.  signifies  Note ;  r 
Remark.  Abl.  =  ablative  ;  ace.  =  accusative  ;  adj.  =  adjective  ;  adv.  =  adverb ;  apod  = 
apodosis;  app.  =  appositive  ;  comp.  =  comparison  or  compound;  compar.  =  comparative  • 
constr.  =  construction  ;  conj.  =  conjugation  or  conjunction  ;  dat.  =  dative  ;  gen.  =  genitive  • 
gend  =  gender ;  ind.  disc.  =  indirect  discourse ;  loc.  =  locative ;  prep.  =  preposition  ;  subj.' 
=  subject  or  subjunctive ;  vb.  =  verb :  w.  =  with.    (Other  abbreviations  present  no  difficulty  ) 


A,  quantity  in  increment,  350,  351  ; 
quantity  of  a  final,  348.  4. 

a  or  0,  primary  suffix,  160.  r.  i. 

a,  characteristic  of  decl.  I.,  32  ;  ace. 
of  Gr.  nouns  in,  di^.  /;  as  nom. 
ending,  decl.  III.,  gend.,  65.  c. 

a,  in  decl.  I.,  32  ;  stem-vowel  o'f 
conj.  I.,  122,  166.  a  ;  preps,  in  -a, 
adv.  use  of,  261.  d. 

a  (ab,  abs),  use,  152.  b,  260.  b,  263  ; 
compounded  with  vbs.,  170.  a\ 
with  abl.  of  agent,  246  ;  with  place 
from  which,  258  ;  with  names  of 
towns,  id.  a.  N.  I  ;  expressing  po- 
sition, 260.  b  ;  in  comp.,  with  dat., 
229  ;  with  abl.,  243.  b ;  with  abl. 
of  gerund,  301. 

Ability,  verbs  of,  constr.,  271  ;  in 
apod.,  308.  c. 

Abbreviations  of  praenomens,  80.  d ; 
other  abbreviations,  384. 

Ablative,  Etymology ;  meaning, 
31.  /;  in  -abus,  36.  e;  of  i-stems, 
decl.  III.,  55.  e ;  rules  of  form, 
57;  nouns  having  abl.  in  -i,  57. 
a,b\  of  decl.  IV.,  in  -ubus,  70.  d% 
abl.  used  as  supine,  71.  a;  of 
adjs.,  decl.  III.,  87.  a,  b  ;  prepo- 
sitions followed  by,  152.  b. 

Ablative,  Syntax  (§§  242-255)  ; 
meaning  and  classification,  242  ; 
Separation,  243  ;  w.  vbs.  of  free- 
dom, etc.,  id.  a  ;  w.  compounds, 
id.  b  ;  w.  adjs.  of  freedom,  etc., 
id.   d',   w.  opus   and   usus,  id.  e. 


Source    and    material,    244;     w. 
participles,  id,  a ;  w.  constare,  etc., 
id.  c  ;  w.  facere,  id.  d ;  w.  nouns, 
id.  e.    Cause,  245  ;  w.  dignus,  etc., 
id.  a ;  causa,  gratia,  id.  c.     Agent, 
246.    Comparison,  247  ;  opinione, 
spe,  etc.,  id.  b  ;  w.  alius,  id.  d ;  w. 
advs.,  id.  e.    Manner,  248 ;  accom- 
paniment, id.  a  ;  means,  id.  c  ;  w. 
dono,  etc.,  225.  d\  w.  utor,  fruor, 
etc.,  249.     Degree  of  difference, 
250;  quo  .   .   .  60,  106.  c,  250.  R. 
Quality,  2y  ;  price,  252;  charge 
or  penalty,  220.  b.     Specification, 
253.      Place,  254;   w.  verbs  and 
fretus,  id.  b.     Ablative  absolute, 
255  ;  adverbial  use,  id.  c ;  replac- 
ing subord.  clauses,  id.  d ;  supply- 
ing  place  of  perf.  act.  part.,  290.  d. 
Abl.  of  time,  256  ;  of  time  w.  quam, 
262,  N.  2  ;  of  place  from  which, 
258  ;  names  of  towns,  domus,  rus, 
id.  a ;  ex  urbe  Roma,  id.  b.  N.  3  ; 
Locative   abl.,   id.   e,  /;   way  by 
which,  id.  ^;  with  transitive  com- 
pounds, 239.  3.  N.  I  ;  time  within 
which,  259.  c,  distance  of   time, 
id.  d.    Abl.  with  prepositions,  1 52. 
b,  c,   260-63  ;   with   ex  for  part, 
gen.,  216.  c  ;  with  pro  (in  defence 
of)y  236.  R.;  with  palam,  etc.,  261. 
b\  abl.  of  gerund,  301. 
Abounding,  words  of,  w.  abl.,  248. 

r.  2  ;  w.  gen.,  223. 
Absence,  vbs.  of,  w.  abl,  243.  a. 


338 


INDEX   OF  WORDS  AXD   SUBJECTS. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


339 


Absolute  use  of  vb.,  175.  h.  n.  2,  237. 
N.  ;  absolute  case,  see  abl.  abso- 
lute. 

Abstract  nouns,  gend.,  29.  b,  in  pi,, 
75.  c  \  endings,  163.  b,  a  /;  w. 
adj.,  187.  c  \  abstract  quality  de- 
noted by  neut.  adj.,  1S9.  a. 

absum,  constr.,  231.  a. 

-abas,  in  dat.  and  abl.  pL,  decl.  I., 
36.^. 

ac,  see  atque  ;  ac  si,  see  acsi. 

Acatalectic  verse,  359.  a. 

accedit  ut,  332, 

Accent,  rules  of,  k^  in  decl.  II.,  40. 
b\  in  comps.  of  facio,  142.  b\ 
musical,  358. 

acceptum,  292.  n.  2. 

accidit,  synopsis,  145  ;  constr.,  332.  a. 

accingo,  constr.,  225.  d. 

accommodatus,  w.  dat.  of  gerund, 
etc.,  299.  foot-n. 

Accompaniment,  abl.  of,  24S.  a. 

Accomplishment,   vbs.   of,   w.  sub- 

junC,   T,^2. 

Accusative,  Use^  31.  ^;  in  -m  and 
-s,  T^T,.  c  ;  in  -im,  decl.  III.,  56.  a, 
b  ;  in  -is  (pi.),  58  ;  in  -a,  63./;  ace. 
of  decl.  IV.,  used  as  supine,  71.  a ; 
neut.  ace.  used  as  adv.,  148.  d. 

Accusative,  Syntax,  237-40 ;  w. 
verbs  of  remembering,  219  and  rz, 
b  ;  and  gen.  w.  vbs.  «f  reminding, 
id.  c  ;  w.  impersonals,  221.  b,  237. 
e\  w.  dat.  225  ;  w.  compounds  of 
ad,  ante,  ob,  228.  a\  verbs  varying 
between  ace.  of  end  of  motion  and 
dat.,  225.  b  ;  w.  ad,  for  dat.  234.  b  ; 
after  propior,  etc.,  id.  e ;  after 
nouns,  237./;  direct  object,  237; 
w.  invo,  etc.,  227.  a;  ace.  or  dat. 
w.  vbs.,  227.  b,  c  ;  ace.  w.  verbs  of 
fefling  and  taste,  237.  b,  c  ;  with 
comps.  of  circum  and  trans,  id.  d'. 
cognate  ace.,  238  ;  two  accusa- 
tives, 239  ;  ace.  w.  pass,  of  verbs 
oi  asking,  etc.,  239.  c.  R.;  adverbial 
use  of,  240.  a,  b  ;  synecdoehieal 
ace,  id.  c  ;  in  exclamations,  id.  d\ 
duration  and  extent,  id.  e,  256, 
257  ;  end  of  motion.  258  ;  names 
of  towns,  domus,  rus,  id.  b-,  Ro- 
mam  ad  urbem,  id.  n.  3  ;  ace.  w. 
ante    diem,    259.  ^ ;     subject    of 


mf.,  173.  2,  240./  272,  330;  w. 
prepositions,  152.  a,  c;  w.  prep, 
to  denote  penalty,  220.  b  \  w.  ad 
w.  refert,  etc.,  222.  b  ;  w.  pridie, 
propius,  etc.,  261.  a;  ace.  of  gerund, 
300;  of  anticipation,  334.  r  ;  sub- 
ject in  indirect  discourse,  336. 
and  a. 

Accusing   and    acquitting,    vbs.   of, 
constr.,  220. 

acer,  decl.,  84.  a  ;  comp.,  89.  a, 

-aceus,  adj.,  ending,  164.^. 

acies,  decl.,  74.  d. 

acquiesco,  with  abl.,  254.  b. 

acsi,  with  subjunc,  312. 

Actions,  names  of,  163  ;  nouns  of, 
w.  gen.,  217. 

Active  voice,  loS.a,  in  ;  change  to 
pass.,  177.  a. 

Acts,  nouns  denoting,  163.  c. 

acus,  gender,  69.  a. 

-acus  (-acus),  adj.  ending,  164.  c. 

ad,  use.  152.  a;  in  comp.,  170.  a; 
in  comp.,  w.  dat.,  228,  229 ;  in 
comp.,  w.  ace,  228.  a ;  w.  ace.  w. 
adjs.,  234.  b  ;  end  of  motion,  258, 
cf.    225.  ^;   w.  names  of  towns, 

258.  b.  N.  2  ;  w.  names  of  coun- 
tries, 258.  2  ;  meaning  mar,  258. 
r.  N.  I  ;    in  expressions  of  time, 

259.  ^  ;  following  its  noun,  263.  N.  ; 
w.  gerund,  300. 

adamas,  decl.,  63.  e. 

additur,  constr.,  332. 

adeo  (verb),  constr.,  228.  a. 

adeo  ut,  319.  r. 

-ades,  patronymic  ending,  164.  b. 

adim5,  constr.,  229. 

Adjective  phrase,  179. 

Adjective  pronouns,  see  Pronouns. 

Adjectives,  Etymology ;  definition, 
introd.  4  ;  formed  like  nouns,  p.  34. 
Declension, 8 1-87  ;  decl.  Land  II., 
8 1-83  ;  decl.  III.,  84-87  ;  decl.  III., 
three  terminations,  84.  a  ;  one  ter- 
mination, 85.  Comparison,  89-91 ; 
decl.  of  comparative,  86  ;  advs. 
derived  from  adjs.,  148;  numeral 
adjs.,  94,  95  ;  derivative  adjs.,  164. 

Adjectives,  Syntax  and  use;  as 
advs.,  88.  d  (cf.  92),  148.  d,  191 ; 
as  nouns,  88.  a,  18S,  189  ;  masc. 
adjs.,  88.  b  ;  adjs.  of  com.  gend., 


88.  b  ;  nouns  used  as  adjs.,  88.  c, 
188.  d!';  advs.  used  as  adjs.,  188.  <r; 
participles  used  as  adjs.,  291. 
Agreement  of  adjs.,  186,  187;  at- 
tribute and  predicate,  187.  a,  b\ 
use  of  neut.  adjs.  189;  two  com- 
paratives with  quam,  192.  Adjs. 
w.  adverbial  force,  191  ;  adj.  pro- 
nouns, 195-203.  Gen.  of  adjs.  of 
decl.  III.  instead  of  nom.,  214.  */. 
R.  Adjs.  w.  gen.,  218;  w.  dat., 
234  ;  w.  ace.,  237./;  w.  inf.,  273. 
d\  w.  supine  in-u,  303.  Position 
of  adjs.,  344.  a,  b.  Adjective 
phrase,  179. 

adiuvo,  w.  ace.,  227.  a. 

admodum,  use,  93.  d. 

admoneo,  constr.,  219.  c. 

Admonishing,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  330. 

adspergo,  constr.,  225.  t/. 

adulor,  constr,,  227.  b. 

.Vdverbial  ace,  240  a,  b,  cf.  238.  a. 

Adverbial  conjunctions,  25.  /i.  n. 

.Vdverbial  phrases,  179. 

Adverbs,  defined,  introd.  8  ;  formed 
from  adjs.,  88.  d.,  92,  148  ;  com- 
parison   of    advs.,   92  ;     numeral 
advs.,  96;  correlative  advs.  used 
as    eonjs.,    107.        Classification 
of    advs.,    149.      Advs.    used  as 
adjs.,    188.    <f ;    adjs.    w.   adver- 
bial  force,    191  ;    adverbial    ace., 
240.  a  ;  adverbial   abl.  abs.,  255 
c.     Special  uses,  150,  151.     Svm 
TAX,  207  ;  adv.  w.  nouns,  207.  d 
part.  gen.  w.  advs.,  216,  a.  4;  dat 
w.  advs.,  234,  a  ;  comp.    of  adv 
followed  by  quam,  247.   e\    adv 
as  protasis,  310.  a. 
Adversative  conjunctions,  154.  a.  2. 
adversus,  w.  ace.,  152.  a  ;  as  adv., 
261.  d. 

ae,    diphthong,    i ;    sound    of,    16, 

12.  c. 
aedes,  sing,  and  pi.,  79.  a. 
aeger,  decl.,  82. 
aemulor,  constr.,  227,  b. 
Aeneades,  decl.,  37. 
Aeneas,  decl.,  37. 
aequalis,   decl.,    57.   a  ;    constr.    w. 

gen.,  234.  d. 
aequo  (abl,),  w.  comp.,  247,  b. 


aequor,  decl.,  49. 

aer,  decl.,  63./;  use  of  pi.,  75.  b. 

aes,  use  of  pi.,  75.  b. 

aetas,  decl.,  54. 

aether,  decl.,  63.  / 

affinis,  decl,,  57    b ;  constr.  w.  gen., 

234.  d. 
Affirmative,  expressed  by  two  nega- 
tives, 150  ;  nonne,  expecting  affirm, 
answer,  210.   «r;    ways   of   saying 
yes,  212.  and  a. 
Agency,  nouns  of,  162;  rel.  clause 

equivalent  to,  201.  b. 
Agent,  dat.  of,  w.  gerundives,  232  ; 
w.  perf.  parts.,  id.  a  ;  abl.  of,  246  ; 
agent  regarded  as  means,  id.   b\ 
animal  as  agent,  id.  n, 
ager,  decl.,  ^. 
aggredior,  constr.,  228.  a. 
Agnomen,  80.  b. 
ago,  forms  of,  omitted,  206.  c. 
Agreeing,  verbs  of,  with  gerundive, 

294.fl'(cf,  331.  ^. 
Agreement,  def.,  introd.  181  ;  forms 
of,  182  ;  of  nouns,  183  ;  in  appos., 
184  ;  in  predicate,  185  ;  of  adjs., 
186  ;  of  demonstrative  pronouns, 
195  ;  of  possessive  pronouns,  197  ; 
of   relatives,   198,   199;  of  verbs, 
204,  205. 
-ai  for  -ae,  decl.  I.,  36.  a  ;  347.  a.  2. 
-aius  in  Prosody,  347.  d,  note  i. 
-al  and  -ar,  neuters  in  (decl.  III.), 

53,  c,  57.  a. 
-al,  noun-ending,  164.  /.  7, 
alacer,  decl.,  84.  a  ;  comp.,  91.  ^. 
-ale,  noun-ending,  164.  /.  7, 
alienus,  for  possessive  gen.  of  alius, 

^y  b,  190,  214.  a. 
aliqui  (-quis),  decl.,  105,  d;  deriva- 
tion  and   use,  id.    n.  ;    meaning, 
202.  a,  b. 
aliquot,  indeclinable,  use,  106.  a. 
-alls,  -aris,  adj.  endings,  164.  d. 
aUus  decl.,  %i;  gen.,  id.   b,  cf.  214. 
a  ;  compounds,  83.  b  ;  alius  with 
abl.,  ac,  nisi,  quam,  247,  d. 
alius  .  .  .  alius,  alter .  .  .  alter,   203. 
Alphabet,  p.  4  ;  vowels   and   diph- 
thongs,   I;  consonants,  2;    table 
of   vowels  and  consonants,    2,4; 
early  forms  of  letters,  6. 
alter,   decL,  83;  gen.   and   comps., 


340 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


id.    b ;  use,    203 ;    reciprocal   use, 

99.  </,  203. 
alter  .  .  .  alter,   203. 
altera  est  res  ut,  332. 
alteruter,  decl.,  83.  b  ;  use,  203.  a. 
Although,  how  expressed,3i3,  320.  e. 
alvos  (alvus),  gend.,  39.  a. 
am-,  see  amb^. 
amth  (am-,  an-),  inseparable  prefix, 

170.  b. 
ambages,  decl.,  59. 
ambo,  decl.,  94.  b. 
amens,  decl.,  87.  a. 
amplius,  without  quam,  247.  c. 
amussim,  ace,  56.  a. 
an-,  see  amb-. 
an,  anne,  annon,  in  double  questions, 

211. 
Anaphora,  2>AA'f' 
anceps,  decl.,  87.  a. 
AncMses,  decl.,  37. 
Andromache,  decl.,  37. 
-aneus,  adj.  ending,  164.^. 
animal,  decl.,  52. 
Animals,  gend.  of  names  of,  29.  b, 

30.  b  ;  regarded  as  means,  246.  b. 

N. 

animi  (loc),  w.  adjs.,  218.  r.  R.  ;  w. 
verbs,  223.  c. 

annalis,  decl.,  57.  a. 

Answers,  forms  of,  212. 

ant-,  ent-,  stem  endings,  63.  e. 

ante,  152,  ^  ;  compounded  w.  vbs., 
170.  a  ;  in  compounds,  w.  dat., 
228  ;  w.  ace,  id.  a  ;  adverbial  use 
of,  261.  ^;  followed  by  quam,  262. 

ante  diem,  259.  e. 

Antecedent,  its  use  with  relative, 
198,  200  ;  undefined,  constr.,  320  ; 
see  indefinite  antecedent. 

antecedo,  constr.,  228.  a. 

anteeo,  constr.,  228.  a. 

antegredior,  constr.,  228.  a. 

Antepenult,  19.  def. 

antequam,  327 ;  in  ind.  disc,  336. 
B.  a.  N.  2. 

Anticipation,  ace.  of,  334.  c\  be- 
comes nom.,  id.  R. 

Antithesis,  344  f. 

anus,  gend.,  69.  a. 

-anus,  adjs.  in,  164.  c. 

Aorist  (-hist,  perf.),  279. 

apage,  144./ 


a  parte,  260.  b. 

apertus,  comp.  of,  89.  -r. 

apis,  decl.,  59. 

Apodosis,  defined,  304  ;  introduced 
by  correl.,  id.  b  ;  may  be  subord., 
id.  c  ;  forms  of,  305,  306  ff. ;  po- 
tential subj.,  311.  a  and  R.  ;  subj. 
of  modesty,  id.  b  ;  verbs  of  neces- 
sity, etc.,  id.  c  ;  complex  apod.,  id. 
d\  apodosis  omitted,  312  ;  apod, 
in  ind.  disc,  337. 

Appointing,  verbs  of,  constr.,  239.  a. 

Apposition,  see  appositive. 

Appositive,  defined,  184  ;  agree- 
ment of,  183,  184.  b  ;  w.  locative, 
id.  c ;  gen.  as  appositive  to  pos- 
sessive, id.  d,  197  ^  ;  gen.  used  for 
app.,  214.  /,  so  dat.,  231,  b\  rel. 
clause  equivalent  to  appositive, 
201.  b  \  ace   as  app.  to  a  clause, 

240.  g ;  appositive  instead  of  voc, 

241.  a\  app.   in   connection  with 
inf.,  270.  N.  2. 

aptus  ad,  234.  b  ;  aptus,  w.  dat.  of 
gerund,  etc.,  299,  foot-n.  ;  aptus 
qui,  320.  / 

apud,  152.  a;  in  quoting,  258.  c.  2. 

N.  2. 

aqualis,  decl.,  57.  a. 

-ar,  nom.  ending,  decl.  III.,  51.  r, 
53.  ^,  57.  a  ;  gend.,  65.  c. 

-ar,  -iris,  nouns  in,  57  a. 

arbor  (-os),  decl.,  48.  N. 

arceo,  constr.,  225.  d.  N.  2. 

arctus,  gend.,  39.  a. 

arcus,  gend.,  69.  a. 

ardeo,  w.  abl.,  245.  a.  2. 

-aria,  suffix,  164.  /'.  2. 

-aris,  adj.  ending,  164.  d. 

-arium,  noun  ending,  164.  /.  3. 

-arius,  adj.  ending,  164.  h\  noun, 
id.  /'.  I- 

Arrangement  of  words,  343-346- 

Arsis  and  thesis,  358. 

Article,  none  in  Latin,  introd.  2.  N. 

artus,  decl.,  70.  d. 

-as,  in  ace.  pi.  of  Gr.  nouns,  63./. 

-as,  old  gen.  ending  36.  b ;  Gr.  nom. 
ending,  63.  e\  patronymic,  164.^. 
j       gend.  of  nouns  in,  65.  b  ;  adjs.  in 
'       -as,  164.  c. 

-as,  value  of,  377 ;  gen.  of,  252.  b. 
\   Asking,  vbs.  of,  w.  two  ace,  239.  c  \ 


INDEX   OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


341 


w.  abl.,  239.  ^.  N.  I  ;  w.  subjune 

clause,  331.  J 

Aspirates,  2.  a,  3. 
Assertions,  direct,  in  Indie,  112.  a. 
Assimilation  of  consonants,  11.  <?. 
assis,  gen.  of  value,  252.  b. 
ast,  156.  b. 

-aster,  as  noun  ending,  164.  /.  12. 
Asyndeton,  208.  b,  346.  c. 
At,  meaning  near,  258.  r.  N.  i. 
at,  use,  1 56.  /J ;  at  enim,  id. ;  at  vero, 

208.  e. 
at-,  patrial  stem  ending,  54.  3 ;  decl., 

59  ;  87.  b. 
ater,  decl.,  82.  c. 
Athds,  decl.,  43. 
Atlas,  decl.,  63.  ^,  64. 
atque  (ac),  use,  156.  a\  after  alius, 

247.  d. 
atqui,  use,  156.  b. 
atr5x,  decl.,  85.  a. 
Attraction  of  case  of  relative,  199. 

a. 
Attraction,  subjunctive  of,  340,  342. 
Attributive  adjective  defined,  186.  a  ; 

number,  186.  d ;  takes  gender  of 

nearest  noun,  187.  a. 
-atus,  adj.  ending,  164./! 
audacter,  comp.,  92. 
aula,  decl.,  37. 
ausus  as  pres.  part.,  290.  b. 
aut,  use,  156.  ^;  212.  R. 
autem,  use,  156.^,  k\  345.  b. 
Author  w.  apud,  258.  c.  n.  2. 
avis,  decl.,  57.  b. 
-ax,  verbal  adj.  ending,  164.  /;  adjs. 

in,  with  gen.,  218.  b. 

baccar,  decl.,  57.  a. 

Bargaining,  verbs  of,  constr.  ;  ger- 
undive, 294.  d  \  clause,  331.  d. 

basis,  decl.,  64. 

Beginning,  verbs  of,  constr.,  271. 

Believing,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  227. 

belli,  locative  use  of,  258.  d. 

bellum,  decl.,  38. 

bellus,  comp.,  91.  d.  2. 

Belonging,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  234.  d. 

bene,  comparison,  92 ;  compounds 
of,  constr.,  227.  e. 

Benefiting,  verbs  of,  constr.,  227. 

-ber,  names  of  months  in,  decl.,  84. 
a. 


bi-color,  decl.,  87.  d,J 

bi-corpor,  85.  b.  n. 

-bilis,  verbal  adj.  ending  in,  164.  m. 

bipennis,  decl.,  87.  b. 

Birds,  gend.  of  names  of,  29.  2. 

Birth  or  origin,  nouns  of,  derivation, 

164.  b\  participles  of,  with  abl., 

224.  a. 
bonus,  comparison,  90;   w.   dat.  of 

gerund,  etc.,  299.  foot-n. 
bos,  decl.,  60.  <^,  61. 
bri-,  stems  ending  in,  51.  /J ;  adjs.  in, 

84.  a. 
-brum,  suffix,  163.  d. 
-bulum,  suffix,  163.  d. 
-bundus,  verbals  in,  164./;   w.  ace, 

buris,  decl.,  56.  a. 

Buying,  verbs  of,  constr.,  252.  d. 

C  for  g,  in  early  use  and  as  abbrevia- 
tion, 6  ;  for  qu,  7  ;  gend.  of 
nouns  in  -c,  65.  c ;  quantity  of 
final  syllables  ending  in,  348.  10. 

caedes,  decl.,  59. 

caeles,  decl.,  87.  b. 

Caere,  decl.,  57.  d. 

caesius,  comp.,  91.  d. 

Caesura,  358.  b  \  mase  and  fem.,  362. 
b.  ;  bucolic  caesura,  id. 

Calendar,  Roman,  376. 

Calends,  376.  a. 

campester,  decl.,  84.  a. 

canalis,  decl.,  57.  b. 

canis,  decl.  and  stem,  47.  r,  51.  a. 

Capacity,  measures  of,  383. 

capitis,  gen.,  with  verbs  of  accusing, 
220.  a. 

caput,  decl.,  46. 

Capys,  decl.,  63.  g,  64. 

Cardinal  numbers,  94,  replaced  by 
distributives,  95.  b,  d\  inflection 
of  id.  a~e  ;  with  ex,  216.  c. 

care,  comp.,  92. 

caro,  decl.,  61. 

carus,  compared,  89. 

Case  constructions,  N.,  p.  161. 

Case-endings,  final  vowels  in,  y^.  g ; 
table,  34. 

Cases,  defined,  31  ;  position  of  modi- 
fying case,  344.  rt.  2  ;  agreement 
in,  183  ;  case  of  rel.  pron.,  198, 
199.  a  ;  same  case  after  as  before 


342 


INDEX   OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


343 


i 


certain conj.,  208.  a.  Construction 
of  Cases,  213-263  ;  Genitive,  213- 
223  ;  Dative,  224-236  ;  Accusa- 
tive, 237-240  ;  Vocative,  241  ; 
Ablative,  242-255;  time  and 
place,  256-259  ;  cases  with  preps., 
260. 

Catalectic  verse,  359.  a. 

causa,  w.  gen.,  223.  e,  245.  c  \  w.  gen. 
of  gerund,  318. 

Causal  clauses,  w.  indie,  or  subj., 
quod,  quia  (cf.  N.  3),quoniam,  321  ; 
w.  quando,  id.  n.  3  ^  w.  qui,  320.  e  \ 
with  cum,  id.  /;  non  quia,  non 
quod,  etc.,  in  the  denial  of  a  rea- 
son, 321.  R. ;  causal  clause  replaced 
by  part.,  292  ;  by  abl.  abs.,  255. 
d.  2. 

Causal  conjunction,  154.  a.  3;  par- 
ticles, 321. 

Cause,  abl.  of,  245. 

Cause,  adverb  of,  149.  c. 

Caution  and  effort,  vbs.  of,  constr., 

cave,    in    prohibitions,    269.    a  ;    ne 

omitted  after,  331-/.  R- 
caveo,  constr.,  331. 
-ce,  enclitic,  100,  loi.  n. 
Ceasing,  vbs.  of,  w.   complem.  inf., 

271. 
cedo,  constr.,  226.  N.  2. 
celeber,  decl.,  84.  a. 
celer,  forms,  84.  «,  c. 
celo,  w.  ace,  239.  d. 
Celtiber,  decl.,  41.  rt'. 
censeo,  constr.,  331  and  d. 
carte,  certo,  use,  151.  ^  ;  in  answers, 

212.  a. 
cete,  Greek  pi.,  39.  b. 
cetera,  adverbial   use,    240.  b\  -us, 

use,  193  ;  -i,  use,  203.  a. 
ceu,  use,  312. 
-ceus,  ad.,  ending,  164.  .<^. 
Characteristic,  clause  of,  320. 
Characteristic,  expr.   by   participle, 

292. 
Characteristic  vowel,  32,  351. 
Charge  and  penalty,  gen.  of,  220. 
chelys,  decl.,  63.  ,^'-,  64. 
Chiasmus^  344.  /and  N. 
Choosing,  vbs.  of,  w.  2  ace,  239.  a. 
ci  and  ti,  interchange  of,  12.  a. 
-cinium,  noun  ending,  163.  J. 


-cio,  diminutive  ending,  164.  a.  r. 

cip-,  stems  in,  decl.  111.,  45. 

circa,  circum,  circiter,  use,  152.  a; 
as  advs.,  261.  d. 

circa,  after  a  noun,  293.  N.  ;  w.  ger- 
und, 300. 

circum,  compounds  w.  vbs.,  170.  «; 
dat.  w.  such  comps.,  228  ;  ace, 
237.  d. 

circumdo,  constr.,  225.  d. 

circumfundo,  constr.,  225.  d. 

Circumstances  of  act,  255  and  d.  5; 
participle  implying,  292. 

cis,  citerior,  91.  «. 

Cities,  gend.  of  names  of,  29.  2 
and  b. 

citra,  after  its  noun,  263.  N. 

civis,  -es,  decl.,  51.  a. 

clades,  decl.,  59. 

clam,  constr.,  261.  c. 

Classes,  names  of,  gend.  of,  28  d\ 
used  in  plu.,  76.  2. 

Clauses,  defined,  introd.  17  ;  kinds 
of,  180  ;  replaced  by  abl.  abs.,  255. 
d\  used  as  nouns  with  gen.,  214. 
d\  dependent,  syntax  of,  316-342 
incl. ;  conditional,  316  ;  final,  317, 
318  ;  consecutive,  319,  320;  causal, 
321  ;  temporal,  322-328  ;  substan- 
tive, 329-339  incl.  ;  infinitive 
clauses,  330  ;  substantive  clauses 
of  purpose,  331  ;  of  result,  332; 
indie,  with  quod,  333  ;  indirect 
questions,  334  ;  indirect  discourse, 

335-342. 

clavis,  decl.,  57.  b. 

clienta,  85.  r. 

coepi,  143.  a. 

Cognate  ace,  237.  c.  N.,  238,  240.  a. 

Cognomen,  80.  a. 

Collective  noun  with  pi.  verb,  205.  c. 

colus,  gend.,  69.  a. 

com-  (con-),  compounded  w.  vbs., 
170.  a\  such  take  dat.,  228. 

Combinations  of  words,  13. 

cometes,  decl.,  37. 

comitium,  comitia,  79.  a. 

comitor,  constr.,  227.  b. 

Command,  see  Imperative  ;  in  hor- 
tatory subj.,  266. 

Commanding,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat.,  227  ; 
w.  inf.,  330.  2  and  ^.  2  ;  w.  subj., 
I        331-  «  (cf-  332.  h). 


Command,  expressed  by  imv.,  269 ; 
for  condition,  310.  b  \  in  indir. 
disc,  339  ;  in  informal  ind.  disc, 
341.  a. 

commiseror,  w.  ace,  221.  b. 

committo  ut,  332  and  e. 

Common  gender,  30 ;  adjs.  of,  88.  b. 

Common  syllables,  18.  <?,  347.  d. 

commonefacio,  -fio,  constr.,  219.  c. 

commoneo,  constr.,  219.  c. 

communis,  w.  gen.,  218. 

commutare,  constr.,  252.  c. 

Comparative  conjunctions,  154.  b.  2, 
155;  in  conditions,  312. 

Comparative  suffix,  of  advs.,  148.  d. 

Comparatives,  decl.,  86  ;  stem,  id. 
a  ;  neut.  sing,  of  comp.  adj.  used 
as  adv.,  92  ;  meaning  of,  93.  a  ; 
two  comparatives,  192  ;  comp. 
and  positive  w.  quam,  id. ;  abl.  w. 
comp.,  247  ;  quam  w.  comp.,  id.  a  ; 
compar.  w.  quam  (ut),  quam  qui, 
320.  c,  332.  b. 

Comparison,  conjunctions  of,  208.  a. 

Comparison  of  adjs.,  89  ;  irregular, 
90  ;  defective,  91  ;  w.  magis  and 
maxime,  89.  d ;  of  advs.,  92  ;  prep- 
ositions implying,  with  quam,  262. 

Comparison,  particles  of,  tamquam, 
quasi,  etc.,  constr.,  312. 

Complementary  infinitive,  271  ;  has 
no  subject,  id.  n.  ;  pred.  noun  or 
adj.  after,  id.  c.  N. ;  inf.  partly  sub- 
ject, partly  complementary,  270. 
b. 

Completed  action,  tenses  of,  115; 
in  the  pass.,  147.  b.  ;  use  of,  279. 

compleo,  constr.,  248.  c.  r.,  223. 

Complex  conditional  sentences,  311. 
d. 

Complex  sentence,  180.  b. 

complures,  compluria,  86.  b. 

compos,  decl.,  87.  b,  d. 

Composition,  all  word-formation  a 
process  of,  p.  104. 

Compound  sentence,  defined,  180. 

Compound  stems,  imaginary,  164.  r. 

Compound  suffixes,  160.  b,  161. 

Compound  verbs,  170;  comps.  of 
facio,  142.  a,  b. 

Compound  words,  defined,  168  ;  how 
formed,  168-170. 

Compounds  of  prep.,  w.  dat.,  228  j 


of  ab,  de,  ex,  229  ;  w.  ace,  237.  d^ 
239.  b  ;  quantity  of,  354.  c. 

con-,  see  com-. 

Conative  present,  276.  b  ;  imperfect, 
277.  c. 

concedo,  constr.,  331  and  c. 

Concession,  hortatory  subj.  of,  266 
and  c  (cf.  313.  a,  i) ;  particles  of, 
313  ;  quamvis,  ut,  ne,  313.  a ;  licet, 
id.  b  ;  etsi,  etc.,  id.  c,  cum,  id.  d\ 
quam-quam,  id.  e,  g\  quamvis,  w. 
indie,  id.  ^;  vbs.  of,  w.  ut,  331. 
c\  abl.  abs.  for  concess.  clause, 
255.  d.  3;  concession  implied  in 
part.,  292  ;  qui  concessive,  320.  e. 

Concessive  clauses,  see  Concession. 

Concessive  conjunctions,  154.  b.  3; 
foil,  by  adversative,  156.  b.  N.  ; 
particles,  use  of,  313. 

Conclusion,  see  Apodosis. 

Concords,  the  four,  182. 

concors,  decl.,  85.  b^  87.  a. 

Condemning,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  220. 

Conditional  clauses,  defined,  180.  d. 

Conditional  conjunctions,  154.  b.  i. 

Conditional  sentences,  defined,  180. 
d\  protasis  and  apodosis,  304 ; 
classification,  305 ;  Pres.  and  Past, 
nothing  implied,  306  ;  Future  con- 
ditions, 307  ;  fut.  more  vivid,  id. 
a,  c  ;  fut.  less  vivid,  id.  b,  c  ;  perf. 
indie  in  fut.  cond.,  id.  e  ;  Contrary 
to  fact,  308  ;  indie  in  cont.  to  fact 
condition,  id.  b,  cf.  c ;  General 
condition,  309;  condition  dis- 
guised, 310;  as  part.,  etc.,  id.  a\ 
as  exhortation  or  command,  id.  ; 
protasis  omitted,  311  ;  Potential 
Subjunc.,id.  a  ;  Subjune  of  Mod- 
esty, id.  b  ;  vbs.  of  necessity,  etc., 
id.  c  ;  complex  conditions,  id.  d ; 
Particles  of  Comparison  (conclu- 
sion omitted),  312;  Concessive 
clauses,  313;  Proviso,  314;  use 
of  si  and  its  comps.,  315;  condi- 
tional relative  clauses,  316  ;  tem- 
poral, 322,  327.  b  ;  conditional 
sentences  in  ind.  disc,  337. 

Conditional  Particles,  312. 

c5nfido,  constr.,  254.  b. 

Conjugation,  defined,  26.  Conjuga- 
tion of  verbs,  122-147  5  ^ow  dis- 
tinguished, 122,  a;  regular  forms 


■.^ -.■?•: »-...»    -"iiiriiriiifi-' 


344 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS, 


345 


n. 


of,  122.  c\  mixed  forms,  id.  </;  par- 
allel forms,  1 34  ;  stem-vowels  of 
conjugations,  122-125  ;  paradigms 
of  the  four  regular  conjugations, 
pp.  72-84. 

Conjunctions,  defined,  introd.  10; 
classes  of,  1 54  ;  use  of,  1 56 ;  cor- 
relative use,  id.  h  ;  conjs.  repeated, 
id.  Syntax  of  conjs.,  208 ; 
omitted,  id.  b ;  use  together,  id.  e. 

Coniunctivus  modestiae^  311.  b. 

c5nor,  w.  inf.,  331.  e.  i ;  conor  si, 
id.  N. 

Consecutive  clauses,  defined,  180.  e  ; 
of  charact.  and  result,  319,  320. 

Consecutive  conjunctions,  154.  b. 

consequor  ut,  332. 

consistere,  w.  abl.,  244.  c,  254.  b. 

Consonants,  classification,  2  ;  chang- 
es, II  ;  omission,  id.  b\  insertion, 
id.  Cy  124.  a.  N.  ;  dissimilation,  11. 
d\  assimilation,  id.  e\  pronunci- 
ation, 16,  17. 

Consonant  stems  of  nouns,  decl.  IM., 
44-50  ;  stems  apparently  ending 
in  two  consonants,  54.  i  ;  cons, 
stems  of  adjs.,  85 ;  case-forms, 
87  ;  of  verbs,  166.  a.  3. 

Consonant  suffixes  (primary),  160. 
c,  2. 

censors,  decl.,  87.  a. 

constare,  w.  abl.,  244.  c. 

constituo,  constr.,  331.  ^. 

Cdnstriictio  ad sensum.     See  Synesis. 

Constructions  of  cases,  213-263  (see 
under  abl.,  etc.). 

consuevi,  use,  279.  e. 

consul,  decl.,  49. 

consularis,  decl.,  57.  a. 

cdnsulo,  w.  dat.  or  ace,  227.  c. 

Contention,  words  of,  constr.,  229. 
c,  248.  b. 

contentus,  w.  abl.,  254.  b\  w.  perf. 
inf.,  288.  e. 

contineri,  w.  abl.,  244.  c. 

contingit  ut,  332. 

Continued  action,  tenses  of,  115. 

Continuing,  vbs.  of,  w.  compl.  inf., 
271. 

contra,  use,  152.  a,  188.  <r.  2  ;  as  adv., 
261  ;  position,  263.  N. 

Contracted  forms,  vin,  scin,  13.  ^; 
gen.  in  -i,  dat.  and  abl.  in  -is,  40.  b. 


Contracting,  vbs.  of,  w.  gerundive, 

294.  d. 
Contraction  of  vowels,  10.  3;  quan- 
tity, 18.   c  \  in  prosody,  347.  c  \ 

of  syllables,  355.  d. 
Contrary  to  fact,  conditions,  308 ;  in 

ind.  disc,  2>37-  b. 
convenio,  w.  ace,  228.  a. 
Co-ordinate   conjunctions,    154.    a\ 

co-ord.   clauses,    180.   a\    co-ord. 

words  without  conj.,  208.  b  \  w. 

conj.,  id. 
Copula,  172.  N.,  176.  a  ;  position  of, 

344-  / 

Copulative  conjunctions,  154.  a.  i  ; 
constr.  after,  208  ;  use  of,  208.  b. 

Copulative  verbs,  172.  N.,  176.  a. 

corpus,  decl.,  49. 

Correlatives,  106,  107  ;  rendered  by 
as,  106.  b  ;  by  l/ie  .  .  .  M^,  id.  c; 
advs.  of  place,  149.  a;  conjs.,  156. 
^,  208.  d;  correlative  in  main 
clause,  w.  final  clause,  317.  a. 

Countries,  names  of,  gend.,  29.  2 
and  b ;  as  end  of  motion,  and 
place  from  which,  258. 

Crdsis,  347.  c. 

crater,  decl.,  63./. 

credibili,  w.  comparative,  247.  b. 

credo,  position  of,  345.  c. 

Crime  or  charge,  gen.  of,  220. 

-crum,  noun-ending,  163.  d. 

cucumis,  decl.,  56.  a. 

cuias,  cuius,  105./. 

cuiusmodi,  215.  a. 

-culum,  noun  suffix,  163.  d. 

-cuius,  dim.  ending,  164.  a. 

cum,  quom  (conj.),  form,  104.  /; 
meaning,  156.^;  cum  .  .  .  tum, 
107,  156.  Ay  208.  d;  with  clause 
for  part.,  290.  c,  d,  326.  b  ;  causal, 
"  321  ;  concess.,  313.  d]  causal  or 
concess.,  326  ;  temporal,  322,  325; 
sequence,  287.  e.  n.;  in  ind.  disc, 
336.  B.  a.  N.  2. 

cum  (prep.),  152.  b;  joined  as  en- 
clitic with  pronouns,  99.  e,  104.  c, 
e  ;  in  comp.,  see  com ;  with  abl. 
of  manner,  248;  with  abl.  of 
accompaniment,  248.  a ;  with 
words  of  contention,  248.  b\  with 
weds  of  exchange,  252.  c.  N.  ;  w. 
abl.  of  gerund,  301. 


-camque,  added  to  relatives,  105.  a 

and  N. ;  temporal  particles  with, 

322. 
-cundus,  verbal  adj.  ending,  164./. 
cup-,  stem-ending,  45. 
cupio,  constr.,  331.  ^  and  n. 
euro,  constr.,  331  ;  cura  (imv.),  use, 

269.^. 
-cus,  nouns  in,  decl.  IV.,  70.  d  \  -cus, 

suffix,  164.  /.  9. 
Customary  action,  277,  309.  b. 

Dactyl,  356.  b. 

Dactylic  verse,  360;  hexameter, 
363  ;   elegiac  stanza,  363. 

damnas,  indecl.  adj.,  87./ 

Daphne,  decl.,  yi- 

Daphnis,  decl.,  63.  /,  64. 

daps,  increment  of,  350. 

Daring,  vbs.  of,  w.  compl.  inf., 
271. 

Dates,  how  expressed,  259.  e,  376. 

Dative,  defined,  31.  <r ;  in  -ai,  decl. 
I.,  36.  a  ;  in  -abus,  decl.  I.,  36.  e\ 
in  -is  for  -us,  decl.  II.,  40.  b\  in 
-ubus,  decl.  IV.,  70.  ^;  in  -i  (of 
unus,  etc.),  83. 

Dative,  ^w/aj;,  224-236.  Indirect 
object,  224 ;  uses  of,  id  ;  with 
transitives,  225  ;  use  of  dono,  etc., 
id.  d\  in  pass.,  225.  e  \  with  in- 
transitives,  226 ;  with  phrases,  id. 
a;  like  gen.,  id.  b\  with  intran- 
sitives,  verbs  meaningy^z/^r,  etc., 
227;  verbs  having  dat.  or  ace, 
227.  c\  with  verbal  nouns,  id.  d\ 
with  comps.  of  satis,  etc.,  id.  e\ 
with  comps.  of  prep,  ad,  ante, 
etc.,  228  ;  with  comps.  of  ab,  de, 
ex,  229;  poetic  use,  229.  c\  with 
passive  used  impersonally,  230. 
Of  Possession,  231  ;  with  comps. 
of  esse,  id.  a ;  with  nomen  est,  id. 
b.  Of  Agency,  232.  Of  Service, 
233  ;  with  adjs.  or  adverbs,  234  ; 
with  adjs.  of  fitness,  etc.,  234.  a. 
Of  Reference,  235  ;  ethical  dat., 
236.  With  words  of  contention 
(poetic),  248.  b.  Of  End  of  Motion, 
258.  N.  I ;  w.  infin.,  272.  a ;  dat. 
of  gerund,  299. 

Dativus    commodi   aut    incommodt, 
235.  N. 


de,  use,  152.  b  \  in  comp.  w.  vbs., 
170.  a  ;  in  comp.  w.  vbs.,  w.  dat., 
229;  in  comp.  w.  vbs.,  w.  abl, 
243.  b\  w.  abl.  instead  of  part, 
gen.,  216.  ^  ;  w.  vbs.  of  reminding, 
219.  c.  N.;  w.  abl.  to  denote  the 
crime,  220.  <: ;  w.  place  from  which, 
258  ;  position  of  de,  263.  N. ;  de 
w.  abl.  of  gerund,  301. 

dea,  decl.,  36.  e. 

debeo,  in  apod.,  308.  c, 

debui,  w.  pres.  inf.,  288.  a. 

decet,  w.  ace,  237.  «? ;  in  apodosis, 
308.  c. 

Declarative  sentence,  171.  a;  how 
expressed  in  ind.  disc,  336. 

Declension  defined,  26;  character- 
istics of,  32  ;  general  rules  for, 
ZZ\  terminations,  34.     Of  Nouns, 

I"  35-37 ;  11-,  38-43  ;  ni.,  44-67 ; 

IV.,  68-71  ;   v.,  72-74;  decl.  V. 
comp.  with  I.,  74.  b.     Of  Adjs., 
decl.  I.-II.,  81-83;  decl.  III.,  84- 
85  ;  of  comparatives,  86  ;  of  par- 
ticiples, 85.  a,  b. 
Decreeing,  verbs  of,  331.  d. 
d6dl,  quantity  of  penult,  351.  b. 
Defective  nouns,  75  ;  in  number,  76  ; 
of  decl.  IV.,  71.  b\   of  decl.  V., 
74-  d. 
Defective  adjectives,  87./ 
Defective  comparison,  91. 
Defective  verbs,  143,  144. 
Defective  verb-forms,  no,  143,  144. 
defend©,  constr.,  229.  c. 
deficio,  constr.,  227.  a. 
Definite  perfect,  115.  r.  i,  279;  se- 
quence of,  287.  a. 
Definitions  elementary,  introd.  18. 
Definitions  of  Syntax,  171-181  ;  of 
figures  in  grammar,  rhetoric,  and 
prosody,  387. 
defit,  142.  c. 
degener,  85.  b.  n.,  87.  a. 
Degree,  adverbs  of,  149.  c. 
Degrees  of  Comparison,  89. 
Degree  of  difference,  abl.  of,  250  ; 

distance  expressed  by,  257.  b. 
deinde,     denique,   in    enumerations, 

151.  d. 
delectat,  constr.,  237.  e. 
delectd,  w.  ace,  227.  a. 
delector,  w.  abl.,  254.  b. 


346 


INDEX  OF   IWRDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


347 


m 


Deliberative    subjunctive,    268  ;    in 

indir.  questions,  334.  d ;  in  indir. 

disc,  338.  a. 
Delivering,    vbs.    of,  w.   gerundive, 

294.  d. 
Delos,  decl.,  43. 
delphin,  decl.,  63.  a. 
Demanding,  vbs.  of,  w.  gerundive, 

294.  J. 
Demonstrative  adverbs,  as  correla- 
tives,    107  ;     equivalent    to     de- 

monstr.    pron.   w.    prep.,    207.   a. 

Position,  344.  d. 
Demonstrative  pronouns,   100-102; 

decl.,    loi  ;    of    2d    pers.,   id.   c. 

Syntax,    195  ;   in   relative  clause, 

201.  e.  N.     Position,  344.  d. 
denarius,  value  of,  377. 
Denominative  verbs,  165,  166. 
Dependent   clauses,  subj.    used   in, 

265.  d. 
Deponent    verbs    defined,    in.   d; 

paradigms,  135  ;  participles,  id.  a; 

fut.  inf.,  id.   c  ;   used   reflexively, 

135.   <f ;  in   passive   sense,  id./; 

semi-deponents,  136. 
Depriving,    constr.    v>ith   verbs    of, 

243.  a. 
Derivation  of  Words,  157-170. 
Derivative    forms    of    nouns,    162, 

163;  of  adjs.,  164  ;  of  verbs,  166, 

167. 
Derivative  verbs,  defined,  165. 
Derivatives,  quantity  of,  354. 
-des,  nouns  in,  164.  d. 
Description,  imperf.   used   in,    115. 

d;    description   implied   in   part., 

292. 
Descriptive  abl.,  see  abl.  of  quality, 
deses,  decl.,  87.  fi. 

Desiderative  verbs  (in  -urio),  167.  <r. 
Desire,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  218.  a. 
despero,  constr.,  227.  fi. 
deterior,  comp.  of,  91.  d. 
Determinative  compounds,  168.  d. 
Determining,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  331.  ^• 
deus,  decl.,  40./. 
dexter,  comp.  90. 
di-  see  dis-. 
Dice  rests,  358.  c. 
Diastole,  359./- 
die,  imperative,  1 28.  c. 
died,  forms  of,  omitted,  206.  c. 


dicto,  w.  comp.,  247.  b. 

-dicus,  adjs.  in,  comparison  of,  89.  c. 

Dido,  decl.,  63.  h,  64. 

diem  dicere,  w.  dat.  of  gerund,  etc., 

299.  a. 
dies,  decl.,  72  ;   gender,  73  ;   form 

dii,  74.  rt. 
Difference,  abl.  of,  degree  of,  250. 
dif&cilis,  comparison,  89.  b ;  constr., 

dignor,  with  abl.,  245.  a.  2. 

dignus,  with  abl.,  245.  u  ;  with  rela- 
tive clause,  320./. 

Diminutive  endings,  with  compara 
tives,  89./;  nouns  and  adjectives, 
164.  a  ;  verbs,  167.  d. 

Diphthongs,  i  ;  sounds  of,  16,  17  ; 
quantity,  18.  b,  347.  b. 

Direct  object,  177,  237. 

Direct  question,  .defined,  210. 

Direct  quotation,  335. 

Direct  reflexive,  196.  a.  i. 

Direction,  235.  b. 

dis  (di),  inseparable  prefix,  170.  b. 

Disjunctive  conjunctions,  case  of 
noun  after,  208. 

Dissimilation,  1 1 .  </. 

dissimilis,  comp.,  89.  b. 

Distance,  ace.  or  abl.,  257.  b;  of 
time,  259.  </. 

Distributive  numerals,  95 ;  use,  95. 

a,  b. 
Distributive  pronouns,  202.  </,  e. 
diu,  comp.,  92. 
dives,  decl.,  85.  b,  87.  d. 
divum  (div5m),  for  aeonim,  40./. 
do,  with  inf.,  273.  a. 
-do,  nouns  in,  gend.,  65.  b. 
doceo,  constr.,  239.  c. 
domi,  locative,  258.  d. 
domus,   gend.,  69.  a  ;   decl.,  70.  /; 
double   stem  of,    70.  / ;   locative 
form,  70.  ^,  p.  30.  foot-n. 
domum,  258.  b  ;  domo,  id.  a. 
ddnec,  constr.,  328. 

don5,  double  constr.  of,  225.  d.     "^ 

dos,  decl.,  54.  2. 

Double  consonants,  3.  a,  18.  d. 

Double  questions,  211  ;  answers  to, 
212.  b. 

Doubting,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  319.  d. 

Doubtful  gender,  30.  a. 

Dubitative  subj.,  see  Deliberative. 


« 


dubito  an,  non  dubito  quin,  332. 
g.   R.  ;    non    dubito,    w.   inf.,   id. 

N.    2.  \ 

due,  imperative,  128.  c. 

dum,  with  present,  276.  e  ;  with  past, 
id.  N. ;  with  clause  for  pres.  and 
perf.  partic,  290.  c,d\  w.  subjunc- 
tive of  proviso,  314,  328  ;  of  pur- 
pose, 328. 

dummodo,  314,  328. 

duo,  decl.,  94.  b. 

dupli,  with  verbs  of  condemning, 
220.  a. 

Duration,  ace.  of,  240.  e,  256;  abl. 
of,  256.  b. 

-dus,  participle  in.     See  Gerundive. 

Duty,  vbs.  of,  in  apod.,  308.  c. 

dux,  decl.,  46. 

e,  inserted  in  decl.  II.,  42  ;  abl.  of 
neuters  in,  57.  a,  3  ;  final,  quan- 
tity of,  348.  5;  <?,  stem- vowel,  conj. 
II.,  122;  /,  stem- vowel,  conj.  III., 
122.  c. 

e  as  adv.  ending,  148.  a,  c.  , 

-e  neuters  in,  decl.  III.,  57.  (z,  65.  r. 

-e,  abl.  of  adjs.  of  2  and  3  termina- 
tions, 84.  b.  N.,  85,  87.  a. 

e  in  stem  of  decl.  V.,  72. 

e  (preposition).     See  ex. 

-e,  Gr.  voc,  63.  / ;  in  gen.  of  decl. 
v.,  74.  a  ;  in  dat.,  id. 

-e  for  ae  (oe),  12.  c,  16. 

ea  eausa,  317.  «. 

Early  forms  of  alphabet,  6-7. 

ebur,  decl.,  49. 

ecquis,  decl.,  105.  d  ;  meaning,  /. 

Ecthlipsis,  359.  d. 

edo  (eat),  conj.,  140. 

Effecting  verbs  of,  with  perf.  part., 
292.  d;  with  ut-clause,  332.  A. 

officio  ut,  332. 

effieri,  142.  c. 

effigies,  decl.,  74.  d. 

Effort,  verbs  of,  with  perf.  part., 
292.    d;    with    clause    of    result, 

33^-  e- 
egens,  decl.,  85. 

egeo,  constr.,  223,  243./ 

ego,  decl.,  98. 

ei,  diphthong,  i  ;  sound  of,  16,  17. 

■eis,  patronymic,  164.  b. 

-eius,  patronymic,  164.  b. 


-eius,  adj.  ending,  164.  c. 

eiusmodi,  loi.  a,  215.  a. 

Electra,  decl ,  37. 

Elegiac  stanza,  363. 

elephans,  63.  e. 

-elis,  -enus,  adj.  endings,  164.  r,  d. 

Elision,  359.  c. 

Ellipsis,  177.  c.  N. 

Elliptical  sentence,  177.  c.  N. 

-ellus,  diminutive  ending,  164.  a. 

eluvies,  decl.,  74.  d. 

Emphasis,  344. 

Enclitics,  accent,  19.  c\  quantity, 
348.  I  ;  cum,  99.  e,  104.  c,  e  ;  -met, 
-te, -pte,  99./;  -pse,  loi.  n.  ;  -que, 
see  under  that  word. 

End  of  motion,  ace.  of,  258  ;  w.  vbs. 
that  also  take  dat.,  225.  b  \  dat.  of, 
258.  N.  I  ;  two  or  more  places  as 
end  of  motion,  259.  li*. 

Endings,  signification  of,  161-167  ; 
endings  of  verb,  117.  2,  118.  See 
Personal  Endings  and  Termina- 
tions. 

English  derivatives  from  Lat.,  spell- 
ing of,  15;  Eng.  words  cognate 
with  Lat.,  id. 

English  method  of  pronunciation,  1 7. 

enim,  use,  156.  d\  position,  156.  k, 

345-  f"' 
-ensimus  (or  -esimus),  numeral  adj. 

ending,  94.  n. 
-ensis,  gentile  ending,  164.  c. 
Enumeration,  primum  .  .  .  deinde, 

151.^. 
-enus,  adj.  ending  164.  c. 
Envy,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  227. 
eo,  used  w.  supine  in  -um,  302.  R. 
eo,  used  wjth  quo,  106.  c\  w.  corn- 
par.,  250.  R. ;  approaching  abl.  of 

cause,  250.  N. 
eo  consilio  ut,  317.  ^z. 
Epicene  nouns,  30.  b. 
Epistolary  tenses,  282. 
epitome,  decl.,  t^"]. 
equester,  decl.,  84.  a. 
-er,  nom.  ending,  decl.  II.,  41,  42  ; 

decl.  III.,  53.  b,  54.  I  ;   gend.,  65. 

a\  -er  in  adjs.,  82,  84.  a  ;  comp. 

of  these,  89.  a. 
erga,  w.  ace.  after  adjs.,  234.  c. 
ergo,  use,  1 56.  e\  w.  gen.,  223.  e. 
-emus,  adj.  ending,  164.^. 


ifeft» 


-•  ^  ^^''^-^'^^•-^-i-Tf  ri-n-i'iiiWIN 


348 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


349 


ero-,   noun  stems  in,  decl.  II.,  41; 

ero-  adj.  stems  in,  82.  a. 
ES,  root  of  esse,  1 1 .  a. 
-€s,  in  nom.  pi.  of  Gr.  nouns,  63./; 

gend.  of  nouns  in,  65.  a. 
-es,  nom.,  gend.,  65.  b  ;  formation, 

163.  a. 
-es,  gen.  of  Greek  nouns  in,  decl.  II., 

43.  a  ;  gen.  ending,  decl.  V.,  74.  a. 
esse,  conj.,  119;  compounds  of,  see 

Irregular  verbs ;  case  after,  176.  ^ ; 

dat.  of  poss.  w.,  231  ;  future  part. 

w.,  293.  d,  c ;  position  of  forms  of, 

344.  cj. 
est,  united  with  other  words,  13.  ^  ; 

est  qui,  320.  a ;  est  cum,  322.  R.  ; 

est  ut,  322.  a,  2. 
Esteeming,  verbs  of,  constr.,  239.  a. 
-ester  (-estris),  adj.  ending,  164.  e\ 

a  noun-ending,  164.  /,  12. 
et,  use,.  156.  a;  et  .  .  .  et,  156  /4  ; 

et  repeated  or  omitted,  20S.  b.  i. 
ctenim,  use,  1 56.  </,  208.  e. 
Ethical  dative,  236. 
etiam,  use,  I5i.a  ;  in  answers,  2 12.  a. 
etiamsi,  concessive,  313.  c. 
etsi,  use,  156.  /  ;  313.  ^• 
-etum,  noun-ending,  164.  /.  8. 
Etymology,  4-123. 
Euphonic    change,     see     Phonetic 

variations. 
-eus,    Greek    names    in,    43 ;    -eus 

(-eus),  patronymic  ending,  164.  b\ 

adj.  ending,  164.  c,g^  /,  10. 
evenit  ut,  332.  a. 
ex  (e),  152.  b\  use,  260.  b,  244.  a. 

R. ;  in  compounds,  170.  a,  243.  b  ; 

abl.  w.,  instead  of  part,  gen.,  216. 

c  ;  expressing  position,  260.  b  ;  to 

express  place  from   which,  258  ; 

after  its  noun,  263.  N. ;  w.  abl.  of 

gerund,  301. 
excelld,  w.  dat.,  227.  a. 
Exchanging,  vbs.  of,  252.  c. 
Exclamation,   form   of,    210.  e.  R. ; 

ace.   in,    240.   d\   w.   infin.,  274; 

"ijom.  in,  241.  c. 
Exclamatory  sentences,  171.  ^  ;  ace. 

in,  240.  d\  nom.  in,  241.  c. 
Exclamatory  questions,  332.  c. 
Existence,   general    expressions   of, 

320.  a. 
exlex,  defect.,  87./!  3. 


Expecting,  hoping,  etc.,  vbs.  of,  w. 

infin.  clause,  330.  yi 
expensum,  292.  n.  2. 
Explosives,  see  Mutes, 
exsilid,  exsultd,  w.  abl.,  245.  a.  2. 
exspes,  defect,  87./. 
exsulto,  w.  abl.,  245.  a.  2. 
exteri,  use,  gi.  b. 
exterior,  gi.  b. 
exuo,  constr.,  225.  d. 

fac,  imv.,  128.  ^,  142  ;  use,  269.  g; 
fac  ne,  in  prohibition,  269.  a. 

fades,  decl.,  74  d. 

facilis,  comp.,  89.  b ;  constr.,  303.  R. 

facid,  forms  of,  omitted,  206.  ^  ;  w. 
abl.,  244.  d;  accent  of  corap.  of, 
19.  d.  facere  ut,  332  and  e. 

Factitative  verbs,  175.  ^.  N. 

-facto,  in  compounds,  169.  a. 

faenebris,  decl.,  84.  a.  N. 

fallit,  w.  ace,  237.  e. 

falsus,  comp.,  91.  d. 

fames,  abl.  of,  57.  c. 

familiaris,  decl.,  57.  b. 

familias,  in  paterfamilias,  etc.,  36.  6. 

fas,  w.  supine  in  -u,  303. 

faux,  decl.,  54.  2,  79.  c. 

Favor,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  227. 

Fearing,  verbs  of,  w.  inf.,  27 1  ;  (ne, 

at),  33^-/- 
febris,  decl.,  56.  b,  57.  b. 
Feeling,  nouns  of,  with  gen.,    217  ; 

impersonal  verbs  of,  146.  ^,  22 1 .  ^ ; 

animi,  withadjs.  of,  218.  r.  r.  ;  gen. 

with  verbs  of,  221  ;  animi,  w.  vbs. 

of,  223.  c;  ace.  with,  237.  b;  with 

quod-clause,  333.  b. 
Feet  in  Prosody,  355-357- 
felix,  comp.,  89. 
Feminine,  rule  for  gender,  29.  b. 
-fer,  compounds  of,  41  ;  decl.,  82. 
fer,  imperative,  1 28.  c. 
fero,   conj.,    139;   acceptum  (expen- 
sum) ferre,  292.  N.  2. 
Festivals,  plural  names  of,  76.  i. 
-ficus,  adjs.  in,  comparison  of,  89.  c. 
fides,  decl.,  72. 
fido   (cdnfido),   semi-deponent,  136; 

with  abl.,  254.  b. 
fidus,  comp.,  gi.  d. 
fieri,  constr.  with  abl.,  244.  d. 
Fifth  declension,  72-74. 


filia,  decl.,  36.  f. 

filius,  voc,  40.  c. 

Filling,  words  of,  with  abl.,  248.  c.  2. 

Final     Clauses,    defined,     180.     <r; 

constr.    of,    317,   318;    as   subst. 

clauses,  331.  • 

Final  conjunctions,  154.  b.  5,  6. 
Final   syllables,   rules   of    quantity, 

348. 
finis,  decl.,  57.  b. 
Finite  verb,  defined,  173.  n.  ;  subject 

of,  173.  I. 
fio,  conj.,    142  ;  in   compounds,  id. 

b  ;  defective  compounds  of,  id.  c  ; 

quantity  of  i  in,  347.  a.  3. 
First  declension,  35-37. 
First  conjugation,  prin.  parts,  122. 

c  ;  formation,  166.  a  ;  paradigms, 

PP-  72-75;  verbs  of,    130;  verbs 

of,  how  formed,  166.  a. 
fisus,  as-pTESr-part.,  290.  b. 
fit  ut/J32^a^^ 

Fitne.^,  adjs.  of,  w.  dat.,  234.  a,  b. 
flagito,  constr.,  331. 
flocci,   gen.  of  value,  252.  b. 
For,  when  expressed  by  pro,  236.  R. 
fore,  147.  <r,  fore  ut,  288./ 
forem,  119.  b. 
fores,  pi.  only,  76.  3. 
Forgetting,  vbs.  of,  219  ;  w.  inf.,  271. 
Formation  of  words,  157-170. 
Forms  of  the  verb,  117  ff. 
forsitan  (fors  sit  an)  (forsan),  311.  a. 

N.  3. 
Fourth    Conjugation,    prin.    parts, 

122.  c;  paradigm,    p.  81  ;    verbs, 

how  formed,  166.  d. 
Fourth  Declension,  68-71. 
Fractional  expressions,  97.  d,  382. 
Freedom,  adjs.  of,  with  abl,  243.  d ; 

vbs.  of,  243.  a. 
Frequentative  verbs,  i6-j.  b. 
fretus,  with  abl.,  254.  b. 
Fricatives,  3.  a. 
frugi,   as   adj.,   87.  /;  comparison, 

90 ;  constr.,  233.  a.  n. 
fruor,  fungor,  with  abl.,  249  ;  gerun- 
dive, 296.  R. 
fugit,  w.  ace,  237.  ^'. 
Fulness,  adjs.  of,  218.  <z. 
funebris,  decl.,  84.  a.  N. 
fungor,  see  fruor. 
fur,  decl.,  54.  2. 


Future  Conditions,  307  ;  in  ind. 
disc,  337.  a. 

Future  Tense,  use,  115.  a.  i,  278  ; 
of  infinitive  pass.,  how  formed, 
147.  c;  indicative  for  imper.,  264. 
r,  269.  /;  of  imperative,  269.  </; 
uses  of,  278  ;  in  indirect  questions, 
334.  a  ;  fut.  ind.  for  imv.,  269./ 

Future  Perfect,  115.  a.  i  ;  use  of, 
281  ;  represented  in  subj.,  286.  R.  ; 
in  conditions,  307.  c. 

Future  Infinitive,  how  formed,  1 10. 
d.  ;  expressed  with  fore  or  futurum 
esse,  288.  /;  (rarely)  in  contrary 
to  fact   conditions   in  ind.   disc, 

2>V-  N.  3- 
Future  Participle,  use,  113.  by  290, 

293*  308.  d ;  fut.  pass,  part.,  294. 
Future   Perfect    Subjunc.   wanting, 

no.  a. 
Future  Subjunctive  wanting,  no.  a. 
futurum  esse  ut,  see  fore  ut ;  ifutiiram 

fuisse  ut,  ZZ7.  n.  3. 

G  (the  character),  6. 

Games,  plural  names  of,  76.  r. 

gaudeo,  conj.,  136  ;  with  abl.,  254. 
b  ;  w.  quod  or  ind.  disc,  333.  b. 

Gems,  gender  of,  names  of,  29.  b, 
Zg.a. 

Gender,  kinds  of,  28  ;  general  rules 
for,  29  ;  common,  doubtful,  epi- 
cene, 30  ;  nouns,  decl.  I.,  gend., 
35;  decl.,  II.,  39;  nouns,  decl. 
III.,  gend.  according  to  endings, 
65  ;  of  nouns,  decl.  IV.,  69  ;  decl. 
v.,  73 ;  Syntax,  agreement  in 
gend.,  181  ;  of  appositives,  184. 
b  ;  of  adjs.,  186  ;  adjs.  with  nouns 
of  different  genders,  187,  cf.  189. 
c  ;  of  rel.,  199.  b. 

General  conditions,  defined,  304.  d ; 
constr.  of,  309 ;  relatives  in, 
316.  a. 

General  truths  after  past  tense  (in 
sequence  of  tenses),  287.  d ;  in 
pres.,  276 ;  in  general  condition; 
309.  a. 

Genitive,  Etymology.  Meaning,  31. 
b  ;  terminations  of,  32  ;  plural  in 
-um,  33  ;  gen.  in  -ai  and  -as,  decl. 
I.,  36.  a,  b  ;  in-i  for  ii,  decl.  II., 
40.  b  \  in-i  of  prop,  nouns  of  decl. 


350 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


\ 


( 
INDEX   TO    WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS.     * 


\ 


III.,  43.  a  ;  gen.  plur.  in  -um 
(-6m),  for  -dram,  40.  e  ;  -um  for 
-ium,  decl.  III.,  59  ;  -6s  for  -is, 
63.  /;  gen.  plur.  in  -um,  70.  c\ 
in  -i  or  -e  for  ei,  decl.  V.,  74.  a  \ 
of  adjs.  in  -ius,  83;  gen.  plur.  in 
-ium  or  -um,  87.  c,  d. 

Genitive,  Syntax,  213-223;  gen- 
eral use,  213.  Subjective  gen., 
214.  Possessive  gen.,  id.  a-d  ;  in 
appos.  w.  poss.  pron.,  197.  e -, 
compared  w.  dat.,  231.  R. ;  gen. 
in  predicate,  214.  c,  d\  gen.  of 
adj.  for  neut.  nom.,  214.  R.  ;  gen. 
of  substance  or  material,  214.  e\ 
for  appositive,  214.  J\  gen.  of 
quality,  215.  Partitive,  216.  Ob- 
jective gen.,  217  ;  w.  adjs.,  218, 
234.  d ;  vr.  verbs  of  memory, 
219;  charge  and  penalty,  220; 
of  feeling,  221  ;  vv.  impers.,  mis- 
eret,  etc.,  221.  b ;  w.  refert  and 
interest,  222  ;  of  plenty  and  want, 
223;  of  exclamation,  223;  w. 
potior,  id.  a  ;  w.  other  vbs.,  id.  b  ; 
w.  ege6  and  indige6,  223,  243.  J\ 
gen.  replaced  by  dat.,  226.  b  ',  of 
value,  252.  a,b\  gen.  of  gerundive, 
298. 

genius,  voc.  of,  40.  c. 

gens,  or  family,  names,  80.  a. 

Gentile  adjectives,  164.  r. 

gentilis,  57.  ^. 

genu,  decl.,  68  ;  gend.,  69.  b. 

genus,  decl.,  49. 

-ger,  compounds  of,  41. 

Gerund,  form,  109./^;  use,  114.  a; 
gerundive  used  instead,  296. 
Syntax,  295-301  ;  gen.  of,  298  ; 
pred.  use,  purpose,  id.  r.  ;  vv.  obj. 
gen.,  id.  a  ;  dat.  of,  299;  in  law 
phrases,  etc.,  id.  b ;  ace.  of,  300  ; 
abl.  of,  301  ;  gerund  in  apposition, 
301.  r. 

Gerundive,  meaniug-a«^  form,  113. 
d',  of  dep.  verb,  135.  d\  use  as 
part,  or  adj.,  294  ;  of  utor,  id.  c  ; 
to  denote  purp.  after  certain  vbs., 
id.  d',  used  for  gerund,  296.  Ger- 
undive constructions  in  cases, 
gen.,  298  ;  dat.,  299  ;  ace,  300 ; 
abl.,  301.  Impersonal  w.  esse,  w. 
ace,  237.  g. 


Giving,  vbs.  of,  w.  gerundive,  294.  d. 

glacies,  decl.,  74.  d. 

glis,  decl.,  54.  2. 

gl6rior,  w.  abl.,  254.  b. 

Gnomic  perfect,  279.  c. 

-g6,  nouns  in,  gfend.,  65.  b. 

gracilis,  decl.,  87./;  comp.,  89.  b. 

Grammar,  how  developed,  p.  124. 

Grammatical  gender,  28.  a. 

gratia,   w.  gen.,  223.  e,   245.  c\  w. 

gen.  of  gerund,  318. 
Greek     accusative     {synecdochical), 

240.  c. 
Greek  nouns,  decl.  I.,  37  ;  decl.  II., 

43  ;  decl.  III.,  63,  64. 
Greek   proper  names,  quantity  of, 

347-  ^'  5- 
Groups  of  words.,  conjuncs.  w.,  208. 

b.  2. 

grus,  decl.,  60.  a. 

Guilt,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  218.  a. 

H  (breathing),  3.  b;  omitted  in 
sound,  II.  <j.  I  ;  omitted  in  spell- 
ing,   12.  ^;    in    Prosody,    347.  a, 

359-  ^•.       .       .  . 
habe6,  with   infinitive,  273.  a  \  with 

perfect  participle,  292.  c  ;  future 
imperative  habeto  in  sense  of  con- 
sider, 269.  e. 

habilis,  w.  dat.  of  gerund,  etc.,  299, 
foot-n. 

haereo,  w.  dat.,  227.  e  ;  w.  abl.,  id. 

3.  N. 

Happening,  verbs  of,  constr.,  332.  a. 
Have,   perf.    with,    origin,    292.    r, 

foot-n. 
have  (ave),  defective  verb,  144./. 
Having,  vbs.  of,  w.  gerundive,  294.  d. 
hebes,  decl.,  "S^j.  a ;  comp.,  89. 
Help,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  227. 
Heroic  verse,  362. 
her6s,  decl.,  64. 
Hesitation,  clauses  of,  w.  quin,  319. 

d ;  verbs  of,  constr.,  271. 
Heteroclite  adjs.,  87./. 
Hexameter  verse,  362. 
Hiatus,  359.  e. 
hie,  100.  b]  decl.,  loi  ;  use,  102,  a, 

J;  quantity,  348.  10,  Ex. 
hiemps  (for  hiems),  11.  ^. 
hilaris  (-us),  87./ 
Himself  {i^se^  se),  102.  N. 


Hindering,    verbs    of,    with    ne    or 

qu6minus,  or  Inf.,  331.  ^.  2  ;  332.^. 
Hindrance,  verbs  of,  with  qu6minus, 

319.  c  \  with  negatives,  followed 

by  quin,  332.  ^. 
Historical  infinitive,  275. 
Historical  present,  276.  d)  followed 

by  primary  or  secondary  tenses, 

287.  e. 

Historical  perfect,  115.  r.  2,  279. 

hodie,  loc.  form,  74.  c. 

honor  (-6s),  decl.,  50. 

Hoping,  verbs  of,  with  infinitive 
clause,  330./ 

horiz6n,  decl.,  6-^.  d. 

Hortatory  subjunctive,  266;  in  con- 
cession, id.  c  (cf.  313.  i) ;  in  proviso, 
314;  in  obligation,  266.  e;  w.  force 
of  protasis,  310.  ^. 

hortor,  constr.,  331. 

hospes,  decl.,  87.  b. 

hospita  (fem.  of  hospes),  85.  c. 

huiusmodi,  loi.  a. 

humi,  40.  a,  locative  use  of,  258.  d. 

humilis,  comp.,  89.  b. 

Hundreds,  how  declined,  94.  d. 

I,  as  vowel  and  as  cons.,  p.  5,  4. 
i,  primary  suffix,  160.  c.  i. 
i,  in  Greek  voc,  63.  /,  64 ;  for  e  in 
conj.  II.,  126.  b.  2  ;  for  -S  in  conj. 
III.,  126.  c.  I ;  vbs.  in  i6-  of  conj. 
III.,  id.  e;   in   verb   replaced    by    | 
cons.,  123. /^.   I  ;  inserted  in  verb    ! 
stem,  id.  2  ;  suppressed  in  obicit,    j 
etc.,   10.  d ;  i  {single)  in   gen.  of 
nouns  in  -ius  (-ium),  40.  b;  in  gen.    ! 
of  noun  in  -es,  43.  a  ;  in  abl.  of   | 
decl.  III.,  57  ;  in  neut.  nom.,  65.    j 
c;  in  gen.  decl.  IV.,  70.  a;  in  gen.,    \ 
dat.,  decl.   V.,  74.  a  ;   in  dat.  of   j 
unus,  etc.,  ^2- 

-i,  in  perfect,  118.  n.  \ 

i-  stems,  decl.  III.,  51-59  ;  confused,    | 
p.  23,   foot-n.;    signs   of,   55;   in 
adjectives,    84;    cases    retaining 
-i,  84.  b,  cf.  55,  57,  ^j.  a.  I 

-la,  nom.,  ace.  pi.  decl.  III.,  55.  b;  of 
adjs.,  84.  b. 

-ia  for  -ies,  decl.  V.,  74.  b. 

-ia,  ending  of  abstract  nouns,  163.  e. 

Iambus,  356.  a. 

-ibam  for  -iebam,  conj.  IV.,  128.  e. 


-ibo  for  -iam,  128.  <r.  i. 
-icius,  1 64.  g. 
Ictus,  355.  r.,  358.  a. 
-icus,  -icius,  164.  c,  h,  g. 
id-,  stem  ending,  63.  b. 
id  genus,  240.  b. 
id  quod,  200.  e. 
id  temporis,  216.  a,  3  ;  240.  b. 
idcirc6,  as  correl.,  156.  e,  317.  a. 
idem,  decl.,  loi  ;  derivation,  100.  b ; 
used  emphatically,  195.  <:;  equiv. 
to  adv.,  id.  e. 
Ides  (13th  or  15th  of  month),  how 

reckoned,  376.  b. 
-ides,  (ides)  in  patronymics,  164.  b, 
idoneus,  comparison,  89.  d ;  .w,  dat. 

of  gerund,  etc.,  299,  foot-n. 
id6neus  qui,  320.  J.  ^^^ 

idus,  decl.  IV.,  gender,  69.  a.    -See 

Ides, 
-idus,  verbal  adj.  ending,  164.  /. 
-ie,  in  voc.  of  adjs.  in  -ius,  81.  a. 
iens  (part,  of  eo),  decl.,  85.  b. 
-ier  in  inf.  pass.,  1 28.  e.  4. 
-ies,  in  decl.  V.  =  -ia,  decl.  I.,  74.  b. 
-ies,  abstr.  ending,  163.  e. 
igitur,   meaning,    156.   e ;    position, 

id.  y&. 
ignis,  decl.,  57.  b. 
-ii  (or  -i),  in  gen.  decl.  II.,  40.  b  ;  of 

adjs..  Si.  a. 
-lie,  noun-ending,  164.  i,  6. 
-ilis,  -bilis,   verbal  adj.  ending,  164. 
m. 

-ilis,  nominal  adj.  ending,  164.  d. 

Illative  conjunctions,  154.  a.  4-^-^ 

ille,  forms,  100.  a  ;  decl.,  loi^fuse, 
102.  b,/;  combined  with  -ce,  loi. 

illic,  decl.,  10 1. 

-ill6,  verbs  ending  in,  167.  d. 

illus,  diminutive  ending,  164.  a. 

illustris,  decl,  84.  a,  n. 

-im,  accus.  ending,  decl.  III.,  55,  56. 

-im  in  pres.  subj.,  128.  d,  2. 

imber,  decl.,  51.  /^,  54,  57.  b. 

immane  quantum,  334.  e. 

immo,  how  used,  209.  d. 

Imperative  mood,  108.  b;  tenses  of, 
no.  c;  how  used,  112.  c;  w.  iam 
dudum,  276.  a.  N.  2  ;  in  command<-, 
269  ;  3d  pers.,  269.  c  ;  forms  in 
indir.  disc,  339;  fut.,  269.  d,  e; 
die,  diic,.fac,  fer,   128.  c ;   some 


352 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


verbs  used  chiefly  in,  144./;  vari- 
ous periphrases  for  imv.,  269./,  ^; 
Imperative  as  protasis,  310.  b. 
Imperative  Sentence,  \yi.  d. 
Imperfect   tense,    defined,    115.    b ; 
use,   277;    in  descriptions,  id.  a\ 
with  iam  diu,  etc.,  id.  b  ;  inceptive 
and  conative,  id.  c;  of  surprise,  id. 
d)  in  dialogue,  id.  e  ;  equals  could, 
etc.,  id.  ^;  epistolary,  282  ;  repre- 
sented by  perf.  subj.,  287.  b.  3  ; 
imperf.  subj.,  sequence,  287./^. 
impero,  constr.,  331. 
Impersonal  construction  of  pass.  w. 

infin.  clause,  330.  a.  2,  b.  i,  c. 
Impersonal  Verbs,  synopsis  of,  145  ; 
classified,  146  ;  passive  of  intran- 
sitives,  146.  d,  230 ;  impersonals, 
miseret,  etc.,  with   gen.,   221.  b\ 
libet,  licet,  with  dat.,  227.  e  \  ace. 
w.  decet,  etc.,  237.  e. 
impertio,  constr.,  225.  d. 
impetro,  constr.,  331. 
impleo,  constr.,  223,  248.  c.  r. 
implied,  constr.,  225.  d. 
impono,  constr.,  260.  a. 
in,  neg.  prefix,  170.  c. 
in,  prep.,  use,  1 52.  ^ ;  comp.,  w.  vbs., 
170.  a  ;  in,  w.  ace,  259.  ^  ;  w.  ace, 
penalty,   220.  b]   vbs.   comp.,  w. 
dat.,    228 ;    in  w.   ace,  w.  adjs., 
234.  c\  in  citations,  258.  c.  n.  2  ; 
place  where,  258.  c.  i ;  in  idioms 
of  time,  259.  /J ;  w.  abl.  of  gerund, 
301. 
in-,  6^.  a. 

in,  primary  suffix.     See  an. 
Inceptive  or  Inchoative  verbs,  167.  a. 
Inclination,   adjs.   of,  constr.,   234. 

a,  c. 
inclutus,  comp.,  ()\.  d. 
Incomplete  action,  tenses  of.     See 

Continued  action. 
Increment,  defined,  349;    of  nouns 

and  adjs.,  350  ;  of  verbs,  351. 
Indeclinable  nouns,  gender  of,  29.  c. 
Indefinite  antecedent,  relative  with, 

with  subj.,  320.  a.  and  n. 
Indefinite  pronouns,  decl.,  104,  105. 
Syntax,  202,  203  ;  indef.  relative 
may  introduce  conditional  clause, 
304.  a.  316. 
Indefinite  subject  omitted,  206.  b ; 


use  of  2d  person  for,  266.  a;  in 
general   conditions,   309.  a;   licet 
clarum  fieri,  272.  a.  n. 
Indefinite  value,  252.  a,  b. 
Indicative  mood,  108.  b  \  how  used, 
1 12.  a,  264 ;  in  apod,  of  conditions 
contrary  to  fact,  308.  ^,  r,  311.  c  ; 
in  causal  clauses,  321 ;  in  clause 
with  quod,  ;^t,t,. 
indigeo,  with  gen.,  223,  243./. 
indignus,  with  abl.,  245.   a;  w.  qui 

and  subjunc,  320. y] 
Indirect  Discourse,  335 ;  list  of 
verbs  that  take,  p.   296,  foot-n.; 
direct  and  indir.  quotation,  335. 
Moods  in  ind.  disc,  336 ;  verb  of 
saying  implied,  id.  n.  2.      Subj. 
ace,  id.  a.     Subord.  clause  when 
explanatory,  id.*^  ;  clauses  w'.  rel. 
which  is  equiv.  to  demonstr.,  id. 
c.     Tenses  of  infin.  in  ind.  disc, 
336.  A;  tenses  of  subj.,  336.  B; 
subj.  depending  on  perf.  inf.,  336. 
B.  N.  2  ;  pres.  and  perf.  after  secon- 
dary tense  {Repraesentdtio),  id.  a. 
Conditional  sentences  in  ind.  disc, 
337  ;  QuestionTin  ind.  disc,  338; 
Deliberative  subj.  in,  id.  a  ;  Com- 
mands in  ind.  disc,  339  ;  prohibi- 
tion, id.  N.  2.    Informal  ind.  disc, 
340,  341. 
Indirect  Questions,  defined,  210.  a  ; 
syntax,  334  ;  fut.  tense  in,  id.  a  ; 
deliberative  subj.  in,  id.  b\  indie 
in,  id.  d. 
Indirect  quotation,  335, 
Indirect  object,  177,  224,  225,  226, 

227. 
Indirect  reflexive,  1 96.  a,  i. 
indao,  double  constr.  of,  225.  d. 
ineptus,  constr.,  299.  foot-n. 
inermis  or  -us,  ^T.f. 
infera,  comp.,  91.  ^.  ^ 

inferi,  use,  91.  3. 
inferior,  comparison,  91.  a. 
Infinitive  used  as  noun,  gender,  29. 
c\   with  gen.,  214.  d.      See  also 
Infinitive  Mood,  Syntax. 
Infinitive  Mood,  Etymology,  108. 
b\  tenses  of,  no.  d\  how   used, 
112.  d\  pass,  in  -ier,  128.  e.  4  ;  fut. 
inf.  of  deponents,  135  <: ;  subject  in 
ace,  173.  2,  240./. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  A^^^l^B/ECTS. 


353 


Infinitive  Mood,  ^w/tfx,  270-275; 
used  as  subject,  270  ;  complemen- 


inf.,    275.     Tenses   of  int.,  265  ; 

perf.  instead  of  pres.,  id.  d,  e ;  fore 

ut,  etc.,  for  fut.  inf.,  id./   Inf.  in 

indir.  disc,  336  ;  tenses,  336.  A. 
Infinitive  Clauses,  as  subj.  or  obj., 

330 ;  w.  pass,  verbs,  id.  a-d.     See 

also  Indirect  Discourse.    Cf.  also 

272. 
infitias,  use,  258.  b.  r. 
Lif.ection,  defined,  20;  of  decl.  and 

conjugation,  26. 
Informal   Indirect    Discourse,   340, 

341- 
i  ifra,  use,  1 52.  a. 

ingens,  decl,  87.  a  ;  comp.,  (^\.  d.     « 
Inherited  differences  of  form,  8.  i  ; 

in  vowels,  9.  a-d  ;  transposition  of 

vowel  and  liquid,  id.  d. 
iniussu,  defect.,  -]\.  b. 
inops,  decl.,  87.  a,  d. 
inquam,  inquit,   144.  b\  position  of, 

345-  <:\  in  direct  quotation,  336. 

N.  I. 

Inseparable  particles,  170.  b. 

Insertion  of  consonants  (p  in  sump- 
si),  II.  ^. 

insidiae,  dat.  with,  227.  d. 

inspergo,  constr.,  225.  ^. 

instar,  w.  gen.,  223.  e. 

insto,  constr.,  331. 

insulam,  ad,  258.  b.  n.  3. 

Instrument,  abl.  of,  248.  c. 

Instrumental,  abl.  constructions,  242. 

Integral  part,  subjunc.  of,  340-342. 

Intensive  pronoun,  100,   102.  e.  and 
N.,  i95-/-^- 

Intensive  verbs,  167.  b  (cf.  c). 

inter,  use,  152.  a;  in  comp.,  170.  a  \ 
vbs.  comp.   with,    228  ;   position, 
263.    N.  ;    inter   sicarios,    220.    b 
inter,  w.  gerund,  300. 

inter  se  (reciprocal),  99.  d,  196./ 

intercludo,  constr.,  225.  d  and  n.  2. 


interdico,  constiv225.  d,  n.  i. 
interest,  constr.,  222  ;  with  ad,  id.  b. 
interior,  comp.,  91.  a. 
nterjections,  def.,  25  ;  list,  p.  104  ; 
w.  dat.,  235.  e. 

*erlocked  order  of  words,  344.  A. 
termediate    Clauses,    Syntax    of, 
340-342. 

nterrogative    ad  vs.,    use,    210.    e  •, 
position,  344.  b. 
interrogative  particles,  list  of,  149. 

d\  use,  210. 
Interrogative   pronouns,    104,   105 ; 

use,  210.  e  ;  position,  344.  b. 
Interrogative     sentences,     171.     b; 

forms  of,  210-212. 
intra  (interior),  91. 
Intransitive  verbs,  175.  a,  177  and 
N.  ;    used   impersonally  in   pass., 
146.  d;  dat.  with,   226   ff. ;  used 
transitively,  w.  ace  and  dat.,  227. 
_/(cf.  237.^.  N.). 
-inus,  adj.  ending,  164.  c. 
inutilis,  w.  dat.  of  gerund,  etc.,  299. 

foot-n. 
invictus,  comp.,  91.  </. 
invidia,  w.  dat.,  227.  d. 
in  Vitus,  comp.,  ()i.  d. 
-io,  noun-ending,  163.  3  ;  gend.,  65.  b. 
-io,  verbs  in,  conj.  III.  ;  paradigm, 
p.  80  ;  conj.   IV.,   p.  81  ;  deriva- 
tion, 166.  d. 
ipse,  decl.,  10 1  ;  use,  102.  <?  and  n., 
'95-/-^;  used  instead  of  reflexive, 
196.  a,  2.  N.  and  i. 
ill,  in  fut.  infin.  pass.,  141,  147.  c. 
Ironical  statement  not  diff.  in  form 

from  question,  210.  b.  n. 
is,  decl.,  loi  ;  use,   102.  d,  /,  1064 
use    emphatically,    195.   c;    used 
instead  of  reflexive,  196.  a,  2.  n. 
and  /. 
-is,  nom.  ending,  gend.,  65.  b ;  -is, 

patronymic,  164.  b. 
-is-,    -iss-,    -sis-,   dropped    in    perf., 

128.  b. 
-is,  nom.  and  ace  pi.,  decl.  III.,  58 
(cf.  p.  23,  foot-n.)  ;  of  adjs.,  84.  b, 
87.  c  ;  Greek  nom.  ending,  63.  c. 
-is,  itis,  stems  in,  59. 
Islands,  names  of,  loe  use,  258.  r,  2 
and   R.  ;    to  which,  258.  ^,  from 
which,  a. 


354 


INDEX  OP  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


355 


-isso,  verbs  ending  in,  167.  c. 
iste,  decl.,  loi  ;  use,  102.  c. 
istic,  decl.,  loi. 
ita,  Gorrel.  with  ut,  107  ;  in  answers, 

112.  a  \  ita  ut,  319.  R. 
Itaque,  accent,  19.  r ;  compared  with 

ergo,  1 56.  e  ;  used  with  ergo,  208. 

e  \  position  of,  345.  b. 
iter,  stem  of,  60.  c. 
Iterative     verb§     (-to,     -ito,     -so), 

167,  b. 
-ito,  verbs  in,  167.  b. 
-itus,  adj.  ending,  164./ 
-ium,    noun-ending,    163.  /    164.   /. 

II. 
-ium,  gen.  plur.,  decl.  III.,  55.  «;  of 

adjs.,  84.  b,  85,  87.  c. 
-ius,  gen.  sing,  ending,  ^-t^ ;  quantity, 

347.  a.  I. 
-ius,  adjs.  in,  gen.,  voc,  81.  a  ;  forma- 
tion of  adjs.  in,  164.  ,^'-,  m. 
ivus,  verbal  adj.  ending,  164.  k. 

J  (the  character),  4.  n. 
iam,     use,     151.     b ;     w.     imperf., 
277.  c. 

iamdiu,  w.  pres.,  276.  a  ;  w.  imperf., 
277.  b. 

iamdudum,  w.  pres.,  276.  a  ;  w.  im- 
perf., 277.  b;  w.  imperative,  276. 
a.  N.  2. 

iecur,  decl.,  forms  from  different 
stems,  60.  c. 

iubar,  decl.,  57.  a. 

iubeo,  w.  ace,  227.  a  ;  w.  inf.,  271.  ^, 
330.  2.  and  b,  2.,  331.  a. 

iucundus,  constr.,  303.  r, 

iugerum,  measure,  381. 

Julian  Calendar,  376,  head-n.  ;  376.  g. 

iongo,  w.  abl.  or  dat.,  227.  e,  248. 
a.  R. 

luppiter,  stem  and  decl.,  60.  b ;  plu- 
ral, 75.  a. 

iussu,  defect.,  71.  ^. 

iustd,  w.  compar.,  247.  b. 

iuvat,  w.  ace,  237.  <r. 

iuvenis,  masc.  adj.,  88.  b;  how  com- 
pared, 91.  c  ;  decl.,  59. 

iuvo,  with  ace,  227.  a. 

iuzta,  position,  263.  n. 

Kalendae,  376.  a. 

Kindred  signification,  ace.  of,  238. 


Knowing,  verbs  of,  w.  ace.  and  inf., 

271,  272,  330.  I. 
Knowledge,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  218.  a. 

L,  nouns   in  -1,  gend.,  65.  c;   adj. 

stems  in  1-,  85. 
Labials,  3. 

laboro,  w.  abl.,  245.  a.  2. 
lacus,  decl.,  68 ;  dat.  and  abl.  pi.  in 

-ubus,  70.  d. 
laedo,  constr.,  w.  ace,  227.  a. 
laetor,  laetus,  w.  abl.,  254.  b. 
lampas,  decl.,  63./,  64. 
lateo,  w.  ace,  239.  d. 
latet,  w.  ace,  237.  e. 
latifundium,  168.  b. 
Learning,  verbs  of,  w.  mf,  271. 
-lens,  -lentus,  see  -olens,  -olentus. 
leo,  decl.,  49. 
Leonidas,  decl.,  27- 
Letters,  classification  of,  1-5. 
levis,  decl.,  84 ;  comp.,  89. 
leviter,  comp.,  92. 
liber,  adj.,  decl.,  41.  c. 
Liber,  decl.,  41.  ^-. 
liberi,  noun,  41.  ^,  76.  2. 
libet,     impers.,     146.    <r ;     w.     dat., 

227.  e. 
licet,  impers.,  synopsis,  145  ;  use, 
146.  c;  w.  dat.,  227.  g;  w.  predi- 
cate dat.,  272.  a;  w.  subjunctive, 
meaning  although,  313.  b\  licet 
earn,  licet  me  ire,  licet  mihi  ire, 
331.  /and  N.  3. 
Likeness,  adjs.  of,  w.  dat.,  234.  a  ; 

w.  gen.,  id.  d. 
Limiting  word,  meaning  of,  178.  b. 
Linguals,  3. 

linter,  decl.,  51.  b,  54.  i. 
Liquids,  3.  a ;  stems  of,  decl.  III., 

48-50. 
-lis,  adjs.  in,  comp.,  89.  b. 
Litotes,  209.  c. 
-Hum,  noun  ending,  163./ 
Locative  abl.,  254,  258.  c.  i ;  idio- 
matic use,  id.  a. 
Locative  case,  31.  -4  ;  in  abl.,  242  ; 
of  decl.  I.,  36.  c  ;  decl.  II.,  40.  a; 
decl.  III.,  62  ;  decl.  IV.  (domi),  70. 
g,  foot-n.  ;  decl.  V.,  74.  c  ;  forms, 
258.  c.  2,  d.     With  abl.  in  apposi- 
tion, 184.  r ;  relative  adverb  used  to 
refer  to,  201.  /;  animi,  218.  ^.  R., 


223.  c  ;  locative  used  to  express 
where,  258.  r  ;  domi,  etc.,  id.  d. 

loco,  abl,  without  prep.,  258./.  i. 

loco,  verb,  constr.,  260.  a. 

locum  capere,  w.  dat.  of  gerund,  etc., 
299.  a. 

Long  and  Short,  see  Quantity. 

longius,  without  quam,  247.  c. 

lynx,  decl.,  63.  /. 

M,  final,  elision  of,  359.  d. 

macte     virtute,    use    and     constr., 

241.  d. 
magis,  as  sign  of  comparative,  89. 

d\  comps.  of,  w.  quam,  262.  n. 
magni,  gen.  of  value,  252.  «. 
magnus,  comparison,  90. 
Main  clause,  defined,  180.  b. 
maiestatis,  with  words  of  accusing, 

etc.,  220.  a. 
maior  natil,  91.  r. 
maiores,  signification  of,  76.  2. 
Making,  verbs  of,  constr.,  239.  a. 
male,    comp.,   92 ;    compounds    of, 

with  dat.,  227.  e. 
malo,  conj.,  138. 
malus,  comparison,  90. 
mando,  constr.,  331. 
mane,  defect,  noun,  57.  c. 
maneo,  with  abl.,  254.  b. 
mansuetus,  169.  <r. 

manus,  decl.,  68 ;  gender,  69.  \ 

Manner,  adv.  of  148.    Abl.  of,  hard   ' 
to  distinguish  from  specification,    I 
253.  N.     Manner  implied  in  part., 
292.  i 

Manner,  abl.  of,  248.  and  r. 
mare,  decl.,  57.  a,  59. 
mari,  loe,  258.  d. 
mas,  decl.,  54.  2. 
Masculines,  rules  for  gender,  29. 
Masculine  adjectives,  88.  b. 
Material,  adjectives   denoting,   164. 
g\  gen.  of,  214.  <r,  /;  abl.  of,  244. 
and  c-e. 
maxime,  as  sign  of  superl.,  89.  d. 
Means,  nouns  denoting,  163,  r;  abl. 
of,  248.  and  c  \  participle  implying 
means,  292. 
Measure,  gen.  of,  215.  3  (cf.  257.  a). 
Measures     in     Prosody,    355-357  ; 
names    of,    356 ;    contracted    or 
resolved,  357. 


Measures    of    value,    377-380;    of 
length,  381;   of   weight,  382;    of 
capacity,  383. 
medeor,  medicor,  with  dat.  or  ace, 

227.  b. 
mediocris,  decl.,  84.  a.  n. 
Meditative  verbs,  167.  c. 
medius,  {middle  part  oj),  193. 
melior,  decl.,  86. 

melius  est,  tense  of  infin.  after,  288.  e. 

memini,     conj.,    143.    c\     in    pres. 

sense,  143.  n.,  279.  e  ;  imperative 

of,  269.  e ;  memini  with  pres.  infin., 

336.  A,  N.  I. 

memor,  decl.,  '^'].  a. 

Memory,  adjs.  of,  constr.,  218.  a\ 

verbs  of,  constr.,  219. 
-men,  -mentum,    noun-endings,  163. 

c ;  -men,  gend.,  65.  c. 
mensis,  decl.,  59. 
meridies,  gend.,  'jy 
-met  (enclitic),  99.  /. 
Metathesis,  124.  a.  n. 
Metre,  see  Prosody, 
metuo,  with  dat.  or  ace,  227.  c ;  w. 

subjune,  331./;  with  inf.,  271. 
meus,  decl.,  98.  3;  syntax  of,  197.  «, 

214.  a.  2. 
Middle  voice,  240.  c.  n. 
Mile,  English  feet  in,  381. 
miles,  decl.,  46. 

Military  expressions,  dat.  in,  233.  b  ; 
abl.  of  accomp.  without  cum,  248 
a.  N. 
militiae  (locative),  258.  d. 
mille  (milia),  decl.  and  constr.,  94.  e. 
minime,  compar.,  92  ;  use,  93.  e  ;  w. 
neg.    force,    209.    e\    in    answer 
("Yio"),  212.  a. 
ministro,  w.  infin.,  273.  a. 
minor  natii,  91.  r. 
minoris,  gen.  of  value,  252.  a,  d. 
minus,  compar.,  92  ;  use,  93.  e  ;  with 
si  and  quo,  =  not,  209.  e  ;   constr. 
without  quam,  247.  c. 
-minus,  -mnus,  verbal  adjective  end- 
ings, 164.  n. 
miror  si,  233-  ^-  R- 

mirum  quam  (quantam),  with  indica- 
tive, 334.  e. 
misceo,  with  abl.  or  dat.,  227.  ^.  3  n., 

248.  a.  r. 
miser,  decl.,  82  ;  comp.,  89.  a. 


356 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


357 


i 


misere,  comp.,  92. 
misereor,  with  gen.,  221,  a. 
miseresco,  with  gen.,  221.  a. 
miseret,  146.  b\  with  gen.  anci  ace, 

221.  b\  other  constr.,  c. 
miseror,  with  ace,  221.  a. 
-mnus,  see  -minus. 
Modesty,  subjunc.  of,  311.  b. 
Modification  of  subj.  pr  pred.,  178. 
Modifiers,  position  of,  343,  344  ;  of 

negative,  345.  d. 
modo  .  .  .  modo,  208.  d. 
modo  (modo  ne)  with  subjunctive  of 

proviso,  314. 
molaris,  decl.,  57.  a. 
moneo,  conj.,  p.  76  ;  constr.,  219.  ^, 

238.  b  and  n. 
-monia,  -monium,  noun-endings,  163. 

c. 
Monosyllables,  quantity,  348.  1-3. 
Months,  gender  of  names  of,  29.  a  ; 
decl.  of  names  of  in  -ber,  84.  a  ; 
names  of,  376,  head-n. ;  divisions 
of,  in  Roman  Calendar,  376. 
Moods,  names  and  uses  of,  108.  ^, 

112.     Syntax  of,  264-275. 
Moods  in  temporal  causes,  how  dis- 
tinguished, 323. 
Mora,  in  Prosody,  355.  dt. 
morigerus,  decl.,  82.  a. 
mos  est  ut,  332. 
Mother,   name    of   w.    prep.,    244. 

a.  R. 
Motion,  how  expressed,  225.  b,  229. 
rt,  243.  b  ;  indicated  by  compounds, 
237.  d\  implied,  259.^. 
Motion,  end  of,  see  End  of  Motion. 
Motive,  how  expressed,  245.  b. 
Mountains,  names  of,  gender,  29.  a. 
muliebris,  decl.,  84.  a.  n. 
multa  nocte,  193.  n. 
Multiplication  expressed  by  distribu- 
tives, 95.  c. 
Multiplicatives,  97. 
multum  (-0),  comp.,  92. 
multus,  comparison,  90. 
mus,  decl.,  54,  cf.  54.  2. 
musica  (-e),  decl.,  37. 
Musical  accent,  358. 
mutate,  constr.,  252.  c. 
Mutes,  2,  3  ;  mute  stems,  decl.  III., 

44-47  ;  apparent,  47.  a,  54. 
mythos,  decl.,  43. 


N,  2.  3  ;  n  aduUerinum,  id. 

N  as   final   letter  of   stem   (leon-), 

48. 
nais,  decl.,  64. 

nam  (enclitic),  in  questions,  210.  _/". 
nam,  namque,  use,  1 56.  d,  208.  e. 
Names  of  men  and  women,  80. 
Naming,    vbs.    of,    w.    two    aces., 

239.  a. 
Nasals,  2.  3,  3. 

natalis,  decl.,  57.  b. 

natu  (maior,  minor),  91.  c. 

natus,  etc.,  w.  abl.  of  source,  244.  a. 

navis,  decl.,  57.  b. 

-nd,  -nt,  vowel  short  before,  18.  /. 

-ndus,  verbal  ad j .  ending,  1 64.  o  ; 
gerundive  in,  113.  d. 

-ne  (enclitic),  use  in  questions,  210. 
a-d ;  in  double  questions,  211  ;  w. 
force  of  nonne,  210.  d ;  orig.  mean- 
ing, id.  N. ;  in  exclamatory  ques- 
tions, 332.  c  ;  quantity,  348.  i. 

ne,  neg.  of  hortatory  subj.,  266.  R. ; 
w.  subjunctive  of  proviso,  314.  a  ; 
in  prohibitions,  269.  a  ;  in  conces- 
sions, 313.  a;  in  final  clauses, 
317  ;  =  nedum,  317.  c.  r.  ;  in  sub- 
stantive clauses,  with  verbs  of 
hindering,  331.  e.  2  ;  of  fearing, 
id.  /;  omitted  after  cave,  id.  r. 

ne  non,  w.  vbs.  of  fearing,  331.  yi 

Nearness  adjs.  of,  with  dat.,  234.  a  ; 
w.  gen.,  id.  d. 

nee  enim,  1 56.  d. 

Necessity,  verbs  of,  with  perf.  pass, 
inf.,  288.  d'y  in  apodosis,  308.  c, 
311.  r. 

necne  in  double  questions,  211. 

nedum,  317.  ^.  R.  and  n. 

nefas,  with  latter  supine,  303. 

Negation,  perfect  preferred  in, 
279.  d. 

Negative  answer,  210.  r  ;  212  and  a. 

Negative  particles,  list  of,  149.  e  ; 
two  negatives,  1 50,  209.  a ;  use  of, 
209 ;  form  different  from  Eng- 
lish, 209.  b\  neg.  answers,  212; 
neg.  proviso,  314.  a  \  neg.  condi- 
tion, 315.  a;  purpose,  317  ;  result, 
319.  di,  d,  R. ;  position  of,  345.  d. 

nego,  better  than  died  .  .  .  non, 
209.  b. 

negotium  do  ut,  331. 


nemd,  use  of,  202./;  nemd  non,  1 50.  b. 
neque  (nee),  a«^  not,  156.  a;  neque 

enim,  use,  156.  d\  neque  after  a 

neg.,  209,  a. 
aequam,  in  decl.,  87./;  comparison 

of,  90. 
nequed,  conj.,  144.^. 
ne  .   .    .  quidem,  use,  151.^;   after 

non,  209.  a  ;  position  of,  345.  b. 
nequis,  decl.,  105.  d. 
nescid  quis,  use,  202.  a;  as  indefinite 

without  subj.,  334.  e. 
-neus,  adj.  ending,  164.^. 
Neuter  ace.  as  adv.,  148.  d. 
Neuter  adjs.,  sj>ecial  uses  of,  189. 
Neuter  verbs,  see  Intransitive  Verbs. 
Neuter  gender,  general  rule  for,  29. 

c  ;  cases  alike  in,  t^t^.  b  ;  endings 

of  decl.  III.,  65.  c. 
Neuter  pron.  as  cognate  ace,  238.  b. 
Neuter  passives,  136. 
Neuter  verbs,   175,    176;  with  cog- 
nate  ace,    238 ;    having    passive 

sense,  with  ab,  246.  a. 
Neuter  passives,  136.  , 

ni,  nisi,  use  of,  315.  a. 
-nia,  -nium,  noun-endings,  16^.  f. 
niger,  decl.,  82. 
nihil,  contr.  to  nil,  347.  c. 
nihil!,  gen.  of  value,  252.  b. 
nimirum   quam,    used    as   indefinite 

without  subjunc,  334.  e. 
ningit,  146.  a. 
nisi  and  si  non,  31 5.  a  ;  nisi  8I,  id.  .2  ; 

nisi  vero  (forte),  id.  b. 
nitor,  with  abl.,  254.  b. 
nix,  plur.,  75.  b. 

No,  in  answers,  how  expressed,  212. 
noli,  in  prohibitions,  269.  a. 
nolo,  conj.,    138  ;   part.,  as   dat.   of 

reference,  235.  c. 
n5men,  decl.,  49  ;  ndmen,  denoting 

gens.,  80.  a. 
nomen  est,  with  pred.  dat.,  231.  b,  c. 
Nominal  adjectives,  164.  a-k. 
Nominative  defined,  31.  «;   how 

formed  from  stem,  32.  b  ;  nom. 

suffix,  160.  r;  neut.  pi.  nom.  and 

ace  alike,  33.  ^;  in  decl.  II.,  38  ; 

in  decl.   III.,  44,  45,  48,   51;  of 

neuters,  i-stems,  51.  ^  ;  in  u-stems, 

decl.  IV.,  68  ;  in  e-stems,  decl.  V., 

72. 


Nominative,  Syntax-,  as  subject, 
173.  I  ;  in  predicate,  176,  b,  185  ; 
verb-agreement  with,  204 ;  used 
for  vocative,  241,  «  ;  in  exclama- 
tions, id.  c  (cf.  240.  d) ;  with  opus 
in  predicate,  243.  e.  R. ;  nom.  of 
gerund  supplied  by  inf.,  295.  r. 

non,  compounds  of,  150.  a,  b\  in 
answers,  212.  a. 

non  dubito  quin,  319.  d\  332.^.  r. 

non  modo,  after  a  negative,  209,  a. 

ndnne,  in  questions,  210.  c. 

non  nem5,  non  nOUus,  etc.,  150.  a. 

non  quia,  n5n  quod,  non  quo,  n5n 
quin,  etc.,  156./,  321.  r. 

non  satis,  93.  e. 

Nones  (ndnae),  376.  c. 

nos,  decl.,  98.  i  ;  for  ego,  98.  r.  b. 

noster,  for  poss.  gen.,  99.  a,  197.  a. 

nostri,  as  objective  gen.,  99.  c^  194.  b. 

nostrum,  as  partitive  gen.,  99.  ^, 
194.  b. 

novendecim,  94.  c. 

Noun  and  adj.,  forms  of  verb,  109. 

Nouns  defined,  25.  a  ;  indecl.,  gend., 
29.  c ;  declension  of,  32-78  ;  deri- 
vative forms  of,  1 61-163;  used  as 
adjectives,  88.  c,  188.  d\  rule  of 
agreement,  183  ;  w.  part,  gen.,  216. 
a  ;  w.  obj.  gen.,  217  ;  governing 
ace,  zyj.f',  noun  as  protasis, 
310.  a. 

Nouns  of  agency,  i6r ;  formation, 
162. 

nox,  decl.,  54. 

-ns,  as  adjective  ending,  85.  a ;  par- 
ticiples in,  decl.,  85, 87.  d;  w.  gen., 
218.  ^  ;  w.  ace,  id.  n.  i  and  2. 

-nt,  stems  in,  decl.,  ^"j.  b. 

nubes,  decl.,  52. 

nubo,  with  dat.,  227.  e. 

ntillus,  decl.,  83. 

num,  force  of,  210.  c\  in  indirect 
questions,  id.  f. 

Number,  31  ;  nouns,  defect,  in,  75, 
76;  variable  in,  79.  a;  peculiar 
uses,  id.  b,  c  ;  number  in  verbs, 
108.  d;  agreement  in,  181;  with 
appositives,  184.  a\  with  adjs., 
186,  187,  d\  with  verbs,  204, 
205.  c. 

Numeral  advs.,  96. 

Numerals,    94-97  ;    cardinals    and 


■Miii^MUia 


358 


NDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX   OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


359 


ordinals,   94  ;    distributives,    95  ; 

advs.,96;  others,  97.     Position  of 

numerals  adjs.,  344.  b. 
numquis,  decl.,  105.  i^;  meaning  and 

form,  id.  /. 
nunc,  compared  ^^^th  iam,  151.  b. 
nunc  .  ,  .  nunc,  208.  d. 
nurus,  gend.,  69.  a. 
-nus,  adj.  ending,  164.  </. 

0  for  u  after  u  or  v,  7;  in  decl.  II., 

38.  N. 
-o  in  nom.,  gend.,  65.  a. 
-6,  -onis,  noun-ending,  162,  <-,  164,  q. 
o-stems,  decl.  II.,  38;   in  adjs.,  82, 
_  83  ;  verbs  from  o-stems,  166.  a.  2. 
0  si,  w.  subjunc.  of  wish,  267.  b  and 

N.  I. 
ob,  use,  152.  a;  in  comp.,  170.  a;  in 

comp.  w.   vbs.,   w.   dat.,  228 ;    to 

express  cause,  245.  b ;  w.  gerund, 

300. 
obeo,  constr.,  228.  a. 
Obeying,  vbs.  of,  227  ;  w.  ace,  id.  a. 
Object  cases,  177.  b. 
Object   clauses,   infin.,  330;    subj.. 

Object  defined,  177  ;  becomes  sub- 
ject of  pass.,  id.  a,  237.  a ;  ace.  of 
direct  w.  dat.  of  indir.  obj.,  225; 
secondary  obj.,  239.  2;  obj.  of 
anticipation,  334.  c. 

Objective  case  expressed  in  Latin  by 
gen.,  dat.,  ace,  or  abl.,  177.  b. 

Objective  compounds,  i6&.c. 

Objective  genitive,  mei,  etc.,  99.^; 
defined,  213.  2;  with  nouns,  217; 
with  adjs.,  218. 

Obligation,  unfulfilled,  hort.  subj., 
266.  e. 

Oblique  cases,  31.^. 

obvius  (obviam),  as  apparent  adj., 
188.  £.  I  ;  with  dat.,  228.  b. 

ocior,  comp.,  91.  d. 

Occasion,  expressed  by  participle, 
292. 

octodecim,  94.  c. 

odi,  conj.,  143.  a;  w.  meaning  of 
present,  279.  e. 

oe,  written  e  (long),  12.  c. 

offendo,  constr.,  228.  a. 

-olens,  %tentas,  adj.  endings,  164.  k. 

oilus  (ille),  100.  a. 


-olus,  diminutive  ending,  164.  a. 
Omission,  of  consonant,    ir.  b-,    of 

possessive,  197.  «r;  of  antecedent, 

200.  c. 
omnes  ;  nos  omnes  (instead  of  omnes 

nostrum),  216.  e. 
-6n,  Greek  ending,  decl.  II.,  43. 
-on,  gen.  plur.,  decl.  II.,  43.  c. 
-on,  nom.  ending,  63.  c,  d. 
6n,  stem  ending,  63.  c. 
ont-,  nom.  -on,  63.  d. 
opera,  with  gen.,  246.  b. 
operam  do,  w.  dat.  of  gerund,  etc., 

299.  a;  with  subjunc,  331. 
Operations  of  nature,  146.  a. 
opinione,  with  compar.,  247.  b. 
opinor,  position  of,  345.  c. 
oportet,  146.  f  ;  with  ace.  of  object, 

237.  e  ;  in  apod.,  308.  c ;  imperfect 

refers  to  present,  plupf.  to  past, 

311.    c.    R. ;    w.    subjunc.   or   inf., 

331-  '• 

oportuit,  w.  pres.  inf.,  288.  a. 

oppidum,  ad,  258.  b.  n.  3. 

oppugno,  w.  ace,  228.  a. 

ops,  decl.,  46. 

Optative  subj.  {wish),  267  ;  w.  uti- 
nam,  etc.,  id.  b;  velim,  etc.,  w. 
subjunc,  equiv.  to,  id.  c. 

optimates,  54.  3,  76.  2. 

opus  and  usus,  w.  abl.,  243.  e\  as 
pred.  nom.,  id.  r.  ;  w.  participle, 
292.  b ;  w.  supine  in  -u,  303. 

-or,  noun-ending,  163.  a. 

-or  or  -OS,  nom.  ending,  48;   gend., 

_  65.  a. 

Ordtid  oblJqua,  see  Indirect  Dis- 
course. 

Order  of  words,  343-346. 

Ordinal  Numbers,  94;  decl.,  94./ 

-orius,  adj.  ending,  164.  h. 

oro,  constr.,  331. 

Orpheus,  decl.,  43. 

-OS,  nom.  ending,  48.  N  ;  gend.,  65.  a. 

OS-,  stem  of  comparatives,  86.  a. 

-OS  for  -us,  in  nom.  sing.,  decl.  II., 
38.  N. ;  as  Greek  ending,  43 ;  as 
gen.  ending,  decl.  III.,  63./ 

OS,  ossis,  decl.,  61. 

-osus,  -olens,  -olentus,  adj.  endings, 
164.  k. 

ovat  (defective),  144.  e. 

ovis,  decl.,  y.  b. 


P,  parasitic  after  m  (sumpsi),  w.  c. 

paenitet,  146.  b\  constr.,  221.  b,  c. 

palam,  as  apparent  adj.,  188.  e.  3; 
with  abl.,  207.  b,  261.  b. 

Palatals,  3;  stems,  decl.  III.,  gender, 
66.  e. 

paluster,  decl.,  84.  a. 

Panthus,  vocative  of,  43.  3,  63.  i. 

par,  decl.,  85.  b,  87.  a\  with  gen., 
234.  d ;  w.  dat.  of  gerund,  etc.,  299. 
foot-n. 

Parallel  verb-forms,  134. 

Parasitic  sounds,  \\.  c. 

paratus,  with  infin.,  273.  b. 

Pardoning,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  227. 

parelion,  decl.,  43. 

Parisyllabic  nouns  of  decl.  III.,  53. 
a ;  adjectives,  84. 

partem,  adverbial  use,  240.  b. 

parte,  locative  use,  without  preposi- 
tion, 258./. 

particeps,  decl.,  87.  b.,  d. 

Participial  clause  implying  condi- 
tion, 310.  a. 

Participles,  defined,  25  ;  compari- 
son of,  89.  <f ;  number  of,  109.  d\ 
how  used,  113  ;  as  adjs.,  id.  ^;  as 
nouns,  id.  /;  used  predicatively 
as  adjs.,  id.  g ;  parts,  in  -ns,  used 
as  adjs.,  with  gen.,  218.  b\  clause 
equivalent  to  part,  201.  b  ;  parts, 
in  abl.  absolute,  255. 

Participles,     Syntax,     289-293 ; 
agreement,  186.  N.  ;  meaning  and 
form,  289 ;    tenses,  290  ;    present 
in  special  use,  id.  a  ;  pres.  pass 
part.,   how   supplied,  id.  c  ;  perf 
r.ct.,  how  supplied,  id.  d;   parts 
of  deponent  verbs,  135.  a,  b,  290 
b,  d ;  adjective  use,   291  :   predi 
cate    use,  292 ;  with  opus,  id.  b 
perf.   with   habeo,   id.  c ;   present 
with  facio,  id.  e  ;  future  part.,  293 
with   past   tenses  of   esse,  id.  c 
gerundive,    use   as   part,  or  adj. 
294  ;  future  part.,  in  indirect  ques 
tions,    334.  a ;   part,    as  protasis 
310.  a. 

Particles  defined,  27  ;  forms  and 
classification,  p.  96  ;  interrogative, 
149.  d ;  negative,  id.  e,  209;  in 
compounds,  170;  Syntax,  207- 
212  ;  use  of  interrogative  particles, 


210.  a,  d;  conditional  particles, 
304.  a,  315  ;  particles  of  compari- 
son, 312. 

Particular  conditions  defined,  304.  d. 

partior,  conj.,  135. 

Partitive  numerals,  97.  c. 

Partitive  genitive,  216;  nostrum, 
etc.,  99.  b. 

Parts  of  Speech,  25. 

partus,  decl.  70.  d. 

parum,  comp.,  92  ;  meaning,  93.  e. 

parvi,  gen.  of  value,  252.  a. 

parvus,  comp.,  90. 

Passive  voice,  108,  «  ;  forms  wanting 
in,  no.  b ;  signification,  in;  re- 
flexive meaning,  id.  a  ;  deponents, 
III.  b  ',  passive  used  impersonally, 
141.  ^z,  146.  ^;  230,  330.  a-c,  331.  h. 

paterfamilias,  decl.,  36.  b. 

patiens,  comp.  of,  89.  e. 

patior,  constr.,  331.  c. 

Patrials  in  -as,  decl.,  54.  3,  87.  b. 

Patronymics  (-ades,  -ides,  -eus,  etc.), 
164.  b. 

pauper,  decl.,  ^y.  b. 

pecu,  gend.,  69.  6. 

pecuniae,  gen.,  w.  vbs.  of  accusing, 
220.  a. 

pedester,  decl.,  84.  a. 

pelagus  (plur.  pelage),  gend.  of,  39.  6. 

pelvis,  decl.,  57.  b. 

Penalty,  gen.  of,  220  ;  abl.  of,  id.  b. 

Penates,  decl.,  54.  3  (cf.  76.  2). 

penes,  following  noun,  263.  N. 

Pentameter  verse,  363. 

Penult,  defined,  19;  rules  of  quan- 
tity, 349-354. 

penus,  gend.,  69.  a. 

per,  prep.,  152.  a  ;  w.  ace  of  agent, 
246.  b.  Adverbial  prefix,  w.  adjs., 
170.  c  (cf.  93  d) ;  w.  verbs,  170. 
c.  N. 

Perceiving,  verbs  of,  constr.,  272,  330. 

perendie  (loc),  74.  c. 

Perfect  participle,  used  to  form 
tenses,  no.  b  ;  other  uses,  113.  c. 
I  ;  of  deponents,  135.  b  -,  used  as 
nouns,  retain  adv.,  207.  c  ;  dat.  of 
agent  with,  232.  a  ;  abl.  w.  opus 
and  usus,  243.  e,  292.  b. 

Perfect  Tense  distinguished  from 
imperf.,  115.  b,  c  ;  perf.  def.  and 
perf.  hist.,  id.  c,  279;  stem,  how 


.^ 


ui^'^Hi 


36o 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AXD  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


361 


formed,  1 24 ;  contracted  perf .,  1 28. 
a,  b  ;  perf.  subj.  in  -sim,  12S.  e.  3; 
irreg.  forms  of  conj.  II.,  131. 
Perfect  Tense,  Syntax.  Perf.  Ind., 
use,  279  ;  in  f ut.  conditions,  307.  e ; 
in  general  conditions,  279.  b,  309. 
c\    gnomic   perf.,    279.    c.      Perf. 
Subj.,  hortatory,  266.  N.  ;  in  pro- 
hibitions, 266.  b,  269.  a  ;  optative, 
267.  a  ;  in  fut.  conditions,  307.  c\ 
potential,  311.  a.     Perf.  Inf.,  in 
exclamations,  274.  n.  ;  special  uses, 
288.  d.,  e ,  Sn  indir.  disc,  336.  A. 
N.  I.     Sequence  of  Tenses,  perf. 
ind.,  2S7.  a  ;  subjunc,  id.  b,  c  ;  inf., 
336.  B.  N.  2. 
Pericles,  decl.,  63.  /. 
Period.  346  ;  note  on,  id.  headnote. 
Periphrastic  conjugations,  113.  b.  n., 
d.  N.  ;  paradigms,  129;  periphras- 
tic forms  in  conjugation,  147;  use 
in  contrary  to  fact  apodosis,  30S.  d\ 
in  ind.  questions,  334.  a. 
Permission,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  331.  c. 
pennitto,  w.  dat.,  227.  <r. 
permuto,  w.  abl.,  252.  c. 
pemox,  decl.,  87./ 
perpes,  decl.,  87.  a. 
Perses,  decl.,  37. 

Person,  108.  d .,  agreement,  181  ;  of 
vbs.,  204  and  a ;  with  different 
persons,  205.  a  ;  order  of  the  three 
persons,  id. 
Personal  constr.  of  passive  with  in- 
finitive, 330.  a,  b,  d. 
Personal  endings,  116,  117.  2.  i 

Personal  pronouns,  98,  99.     Syntax, 
i^;  omitted,  194.  a,  206.  ^';  gen. 
pi.,  194.  ^ ;  3d  pers.,  206.  b,  174,  2. 
persuaded,  constr.,  331. 
Persuading,    verbs    of,    with    dat., 

pertaesum  est,  221.  b. 

pes,  coraps.  of,  decl.,  87.  d. 

peto  with  ab,  239.  r.  N.  i  ;  w.  sub- 
junc, 331.  j 

ph  only  in  Greek  words,  2.  a,  3. 

Phonetic  variations,  8  ;  vowels.  10  ;   | 
consonants,  1 1  ;  phonetic  method 
of  pronunciation,  16.  | 

Phrase,  defined,  179.  i 

Phrases,    neut.,    29.    c ;     adverbial   i 
phrases,  179;  phrases  limited  by  1 


gen.,  214.  ^;  phrase  or  clause  in 
abl.  abs.,  255.  b. 
Physical  qualities,  abl.  251.  «. 
piget,  constr.,  221.  ^. 
Pity,  verbs  of,  constr.,  221.  a. 
plus,  comp.,  89.  d,  91.  d. 
Place,  ad  vs.  of,  [49.  a;  relations  of, 
require   prep.,   229.  a,  258.  a,  c\ 
place  of  birth,  abl.,  244.  b ;  place 
where,  254,  258.  c,  d\  place  to  or 
from    which,    258  ;    prep,    when 
omitted,  258,  a,  b,J,g;  locative 
case,  258.  f.2,  dy  e. 
Placing,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  260.  a. 
Plants,  gend.  of  names  of,  29.  b. 
plaudo,  w.  dat.,  227.  e. 
Pleasing,  verbs  of,  constr.,  227. 
Plenty,  verbs  of,  constr.,  223,  248.  c. 
plenus,  construction,  223.  248.  c.  r. 
-plex,  numeral  adjectives  in,  97. 
pluit  (impers.),  146.  a;  used  person- 
ally, id.  N. 
Pluperfect  Indicative,   use  of,  280; 
epistolary,    282;    plup.   indie    in 
conditions  cont.  to  fact,  308.  c\ 
in  general  conditions,  309.  c.    Plu- 
perf.  Subj.,  hortatory,  266.  e\  op- 
tative,   267;    in    conditions,    308 
(sequence,  287./) ;  potential,  311. 
a.  N.  2. 
Plural,  wanting  in  decl.  V.,  74.  d\ 
used  in  sense  different  from  sing., 

75-  ^-^'  79-  '■;  pl-  alone  used,  76; 

neut.  pi.  of  adjs.,  189.  b. 
Pliirdlia  tantum,  76. 
plaris,  gen.  of  value,  252.  a,  d. 
plus,  decl.,  86.  and  b  ;  comp.,  90  ; 

without  quam,  247.  c. 
poenitet,  see  paenitet. 
poema,  decl.,  47.  b. 
pono,  w.  abl.,  260.  «, 
por-,  prefix,  170.  b. 
porticus,  gend.,  69.  a. 
portus,  decl.,  70.  d. 
Position,  expressed  by  ab,  ex,  260.  b. 
Position  in  Prosody,  18,  347.  d.         * 
Possession,   how   expressed,   99.  a\ 

dat.  of,  231  ;    compared  w.  gen., 

id.  R. 

Possessive  compounds,  168.  d. 
Possessive   genitive,  214.  a-<:\  dat. 
of  reference  used  instead.  235.  a. 
Possessive  pronouns,  99.  a\  w.  gen. 


\ 


in  apjKJs.,  184.  </;  agreement,  197; 

instead    of    gen.,    id.   a\     special 

meanings,  id.  b\  omission,  id.  c\ 

used  substantively,  190.  a,  197.  d\ 

used   for  gen.,  214.  a;    for   obj. 

gen.,  2iy.  a. 
Possibility,    vbs.    of,    in    apodosis, 

308.  c. 
post,  vbs.  comp.  w.,  w.  dat.,  228. 
post,  adverbial  use  of,  261.  d;  with 

quam,  262. 
postera,  comp.,  91.  b;  posteri,  91.  b. 
posterior,  91.  a,  b. 
Postpositive  conjunctions,  156.  k. 
postquam  (posteaquam),  in  temporal 

clauses,  324. 
postremo,  in  enumerations,  151.  d. 
postridie,  with  gen.,  223.  e ;  with  ace, 

207.  b,  261.  a;  with  quam,  262. 
postulo  ab,  239.  C.N.  i;  postulo  ut, 

Potential  subjunctive,  311.  a. 

potior  (adj.),  comp.,  91.  d. 

potior  (verb),  with  gen.,  223.  a,  249. 
a ;  w.  abl.,  249  ;  gerundive,  296.  R. 

potius,  comp.,  92. 

potui,  w.  pres.  infin.,  288.  a. 

Power,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  218. 

Practice,  vbs.  of,  167.  r. 

prae,  1 52.  b  ;  in  comp.,  93.  d ;  in 
comp.,  w.  dat.,  228  ;  in  comp.,  w. 
quam,  262.  n.  i  ;  quantity  of,  in 
compounds,  347.  b. 

praeceps,  decl.,  85.  b,  Sy.  a. 

praecipio,  constr.,  331. 

Praendmen,  80.  a.  ;  abbreviations, 
id-  d. 

praepes,  decl.,  87.  d. 

praestolor,  constr.,  227.  b. 

praesum,  w.  dat  of  gerund,  etc, 
299.  a. 

praeter,  use,  1 52.  a. 

praeterit,  w.  ace,  237.  e. 

precor,  constr.,  331. 

Predicate,  p.  124;  defined,  172; 
modified,  178 ;  pred.  noun  or  adj., 
172.  N.,  176;  case,  176.  b\  pred. 
nom.,  etc.,  185  ;  pred.  noun  refer- 
ring to  two  or  more  sing,  nouns, 
id-  b\  adjective,  186.  by  Cy  </; 
agreement  in,  187.  a,  ^;  in  rel. 
clause,  199  ;  pred.  adj.  in  neut. 
pi.,   187.  c\  pred.  adj.  in  relative 


clause,  200.  d  ;  pred.  ace,  239  and 
a ;  adj.  as  pred.  ace,  id.  N.  i ; 
pred.  ace  becomes  pred.  nom.  in 
the  pass.,  id.  n.  2  ;  predicate  gen. 
214.  Cy  d\  predicate  use  of  parti- 
ciples, 292. 
Predicate  noun  or  adj.  after  inf.,  270. 

N.  2,  271.  Cy  272.  a.  2  and  n.,  b. 
Prepositions,  defined,  introd. ;  list 
of  preps,  w.  ace,  1 52.  a  ;  w.  abl., 
id.  b'y  with  either,  id.  r;  com- 
pounded w.  vbs.  and  adjs.,  170.  a, 
c ;  noun  w.  prep.,  instead  of  obj. 
gen.,  217.  r;  in  composition  w. 
vbs.,  w.  dat.,  228,  229;  ace  in 
compos.  239.  b ;  w.  abl.  of  separa- 
tion, 243.  b ;  prep,  omitted  in  re- 
lations of  place,  258.  a,  by  /,  ^; 
use  of,  260-263  ;  preps,  following 
the  noun,  263.  N.  ;  usual  position 
of,  345.  a. 
Present    Participle,   decl.,   85 ;  use, 

113.  a. 
Present  tense,  i^ith  lam  diu,  etc., 
276.  a  ;  conative,  id.  b ;  for  fut, 
id.  c  ;  historical,  id.  d\  with  dum, 
id.  e-y  in  quotations,  id.  /;  se- 
quence, 2S6,  287.  Cy  h  ;  pres.  inf. 
w.  potui,  etc,  288.  a  ;  participle, 
290-292.  Pres.  inf.  in  ind.  disc, 
referring  to  past  time,  336.  A. 
N.  I. 

Present  subjunc.  in  -im,  128.  e.  2. 

Preteritive  verbs,  143,  n.,  279.  e. 

Preventing,  verbs,  of,  constr.,  225 
c.  N.  2. 

Price,  abl.  or  gen.,  252. 

pridie,  form,  74.  c  ;  with  gen,,  223. 
e-y  with  ace,  207.  b-y  constr.  as 
prep,  or  adv.,  261.  a  ;  with  quam, 
262. 

Primary  suffixes,  defined,  1 59,  1 60. 

Primary  tenses,  285.  i,  286. 

primipilaris,  decl.,  57.  a. 

Primitive  verbs,  165. 

primo,  primum,  meanings,  151.  d. 

primoris,  defect,  ^y.f. 

princeps,  decl.,  87.  b. 

Principal  parts  of  verb,  122.  by  d. 

prior,  comparison,  91. 

piius,    with   quam,    262 ;  priusqoam 
in  temporal  clause,  327- 

Privation  expressed  by  abl.,  243. 


362 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


363 


pro,  152.  b\  in  comp.,  w.  dat,  228  ; 
to  express  yijr,  236.  R. 

probo  w.  dat.,  227.  e ;  232.  c.  N. 

procerus,  decl.,  82.  a. 

procul  with  abl.,  261.  b. 

prohibeo,  constr.  of,  225.  d. 

Prohibitions,  266.  b,  269  and  «,  b. 
N.  ;  in  ind.  disc,  339.  N.  2. 

Promising,  etc.,  verbs  of,  330.  y. 

Pronominal  roots,  157,  159;  as 
primary  suffixes,  id. 

Pronouns  defined,  introd. ;  decl. 
of,  98-105  ;  personal  and  reflexive, 
98 ;  gen.,  how  used,  99.  a-c  ; 
demonstrative,  100-102  ;  relative, 
interrog.,  and  indef.,  103-105  ; 
pron.  contained  in  verb-ending, 
174.  2. 

Pronouns,  Syntax,  194-203;  Per- 
sonal, 194;  Demonstrative,  195; 
idem,  id.  c,  e ;  ipse,  id.  f-l ;  Re- 
flexive, 196;  Possessive,  197  ; 
Relative,  198;  Relative,  in  prot- 
asis, 316;  Indefinite,  202.  Prons. 
w.  part,  gen.,  216.  a\  Position  of 
prons.,  344.  /,  345.  e. 

Pronunciation,  Roman  method,  16; 
English  method,  17. 

prdnuntio,  constr.,  331. 

prope,  comp.,  91.  a  ;  use,  152.  a. 

Proper  names.  So  ;  plur.,  75,  76.  i. 

Proper  nouns,  def.,  introd. 

properus,  decl.,  82.  a. 

propinquus,  with  gen.,  234.  d. 

proprior  (proprius),  comparison,  91. 
a\  constr.,  234.  e,  261.  a  and  N. 

Proportional  numerals,  97.  a. 

Propriety,  vbs.  of,  in  apodosis,  308. 
c,  311.  c. 

proprius,  with  gen.,  234.  d. 

propter,  use,  152.  a\  position,  263. 
N.  ;  denoting  motive,  245.  b. 

Prosody,  347-375- 

pr5spicio,  w.  dat.  or  ace,  227.  c. 

Protasis  (see  Conditional  Clauses), 
304   ff.  ;  loose   use   of   tenses   in 
Eng.,    305.    r.  ;  relative  in  prot. 
316;  temporal   particles  in,  322 
ante-quam,  priusquam,  in,  327.  b 
prot.  in  ind.  disc,  337.  i. 

Protecting,   vbs.    of,  constr.,  225.  d. 

N.  2. 

provideo,  w.  dat.  or  ace,  227.  c. 


Proviso,  subj.  used  in,  266.  d\  in- 
troduced by  modo,  etc.,  314; 
result  clause  as,  319.  b,  320.  d. 

proxime,  constr.,  207.  b,  261.  a,  234.  e. 

proximus,  constr.,  234.  e. 

-pse,  -pte  (enclitic),  99./,  loi.  N. 

pubes,  decl.,  87.  e. 

pudet,  146.  b  ;  constr.,  221.  b-c. 

puer,  decl.,  38  (cf.  41.  a). 

puppis,  decl.,  56.  b,  57.  b. 

Purpose,  infin.  of,  273  ;  expressed 
by  gerundive  after  certain  vbs., 
294.  d;  by  gerund  or  gerundive 
as  predicate  gen.,  298  R. ;  ways  of 
expressing,  318.  Clauses  of,  180. 
e  ;  defined  and  classified,  317;  use 
of  qu5  in,  id.  b;  main  clause 
omitted,  id.  c  ;  nedum,  id.  r.  and 
N.  Substantive  clauses  of,  used 
after  certain  verbs,  331  ;  of  wish- 
ing, id.  b  ;  of  permitting,  id.  c; 
of  determining,  id.  d  ;  of  caution, 
etc,  id.  e  ;  of  fearing,  id.  J. 

Purpose  or  end,  dat.  of,  233. 

puter,  decl.,  84.  a. 

qua  .  .  .  qua,  208.  d. 

quadrupes,  decl.,  87.  d. 

quae  res  (or  id  quod),  200.  <r. 

quaero,  constr.  (ex  or  de),  239.  c.  N. 
2  ;  w.  subjunc,  331. 

quaeso,  conj.,  144,  d. 

quaUs,  105.  sr- 

Qualities  (abstract),  gend.,  29.  2. 

Qualities  of  an  object  compared, 
192. 

Quality,,  adjs.  of,  164.  /;  gen.  of, 
215,  251.  a  ;  to  denote  price,  252. 
a,  b  ;  abl.  of,  251  (cf.  215.  N.). 

quam,  with  superlative,  93.  b  ;  cor- 
relative w.  tam,  107  ;  with  com- 
paratives, 247.  a,  e  ;  after  alius, 
id.  d ;  w.  compar.  of  advs.,  id.  e ; 
with  ante,  post,  262  ;  with  subj. 
after  comparatives,  320.  c  \  fol- 
lowed by  result-clause,  332.  b ;  in 
indirect  questions,  334.  e\  in  in- 
direct discourse,  336.  a.  R.,^.,  N.  2. 

quamdiu,  328.  N.  i. 

quamlibet,  concessive,  266.  c,  313. 

quam  qui,  quam  ut,  with  subj., 
320.  c. 

^uamquam,  use,  156.  ;;  with  indie, 


313.  e\  introducing  a  proposition 
=  and  yet,  id.  J ;  w.  subj.,  id.  g. 

quam  si,  312. 

quam  vis,  use,  1 56.  / ;  subj.  with, 
266.  <:,  313.  a,g. 

quando  (interrog.),  meaning,  156.  ^; 
indef.,  id.  ;  temporal,  322. 

quanti,  gen.  of  price,  252.  a. 

Quantity,  gen.  of  adjs.  of,  denoting 
price,  252.  a. 

Quantity  in  Prosody,  marks  of,  5  ; 
general  rules  of,  18,  347  ;  final 
syllables,  348  ;  penultimate  sylla- 
bles, 349-354- 

quant5,  w.  tantd,  106.  c,  250.  r. 

quantum  (with  minim),  in  indirect 
questions,  334.  e. 

quantumvis,  concessive,  313. 

quantus,  105.  g. 

quasi,  with  primary  tenses,  312.  r. 

quasso  (intensive),  167.  b. 

-que  (enclitic),  added  to  indefinites, 
105.  e  ;  as  conjunction,  use,  156. 
a,  208.  b.  3  ;  quantity,  348.  i. 

queo  (defective),  144.  ^.# 

Questions,  direct,  in  indie,  112.  a, 
210-212  ;  double  questions,  211  ; 
questron  aift  answ^,  212;  result 
clause  in  exclam.  questions,  332.  c  ; 
mood  in  indirect  question,  334  ; 
in  indirect  discourse,  338  ;  in  in- 
formal ind.  disc,  341.  a. 

qui  (relative),  decl.,  103;  (interrog. 
and  indef.),  104  and  a;  in  com- 
pounds, 105  ;  qui  =  ut  is,  with 
subj.,  317,  319  ;  qui  causal  and 
concessive,  320.  e. 

qui  (adverbial),  104.  c. 

quicum,  104.  c. 

quia,  use,  156.  /;  causal,  321  ;  w. 
verbs  of  feeling,  333.  b ;  in  inter- 
mediate clauses,  341.  d. 

quicumque,  decl.,  105.  a. 

quidam,  decl.,  105.  c;  meaning  of, 
202.  a  ;  with  ex,  216.  c. 

quidem,  use,  151.  e-,  with  is  or 
idem,  195.  c\  position  of,  345.  b. 

quilibet,  decl.,  105.  c;  use,  202.  c. 

quin,  w.  indie  equivalent  to  com- 
mand, 269.  J ;  in  result-clause  (= 
qui  non),  319.  d ;  w.  verbs  of 
hindering,  332.  g\  non  dubito  quin, 
332-  g'  R- 


quinquatrus,  gend.,  69.  a\  pi.  only, 
76.  I. 

quippe,  with  relative  clause,  320.  e. 
N.  ;  with  cum,  326.  N.  i. 

Quirites,  79.  c. 

quis,  decl.,  104  ;  distinguished  from 
qui  in  use,  id.  a.  and  n.  ;  com- 
pounds of  (aliquis,  etc.),  105; 
quis  with  si,num,  ne,  105.  d\  indef. 
use  of,  202.  a. 

quis  est  qui,  320.  a. 

quis,  dat.  or  abl.  plur.,  104.  d. 

quisnam,  to 5.  i. 

quispiam,  105.  c  \  use  of,  105.  d.  n., 
202.  a. 

quisquam,  decl.,  105.  c;  use,  105.  d, 
n.,  id.  h,  202.  b,  c. 

quisque,  form  and  decl.,  105.  e;  use 
with  superlative,  93.  c ;  in  general 
assertions,  202.  d;  in  dependent 
clause,  id.  e ;  with  plural  verb, 
205.  c.  2. 

quisquis,  decl.,  105.  b. 

quivis,  decl.,  105.  c;  use,  202.  c. 

quo,  approaching  abl.  of  cause, 
250.  n. 

quo,  in  final  clauses  (=  ut  eo)  with 
subj.,  317.  b  ;  non  quo,  321.  r. 

quo  .  .  .  eo,  106.  c ;  to  denote  deg.  of 
difference,  250.  R. 

quoad  (purpose,  etc.),  328. 

quod  for  id  quod,  200.  e.  N. 

quod  (conj.),  156.  /;  mood  with, 
321  ;  in  indirect  discourse,  id.  a; 
subst.  clause  with,  333 ;  as  ace  of 
specification,  id.  a  ;  with  verbs  of 
feeling,  id.  b ;  quod  in  intermediate 
clauses,  341.  a' and  r. 

quod  sciam  (proviso),  320.  d. 

quod  si,  use,  1 56.  b,  240.  b. 

quom  (see  cum),  7,  156.  g. 

quominus  (=  ut  eo  minus),  w.  vbs.  of 
hindering,    317.    b.    n.    r,  319.    e, 

331-  ^• 
quoniam,  meaning,  156./;  in  causal 

clauses,  321. 
quoque,  use,  151.  «  ;  position,  345.  b. 
quot,  indeclinable,  106.  a. 
Quotation,  forms   of,  w.   apud  and 

in,    258.    c.  2.   n.    2  ;  direct  and 

indir.,  335. 
quotus  quisque,  105.  e, 
quu-  (cu-),  7. 


364 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


365 


R  subst.  for  s  between  sonants,  11. 
a ;  r-  in  adj.  stems,  85 ;  rr-  in  noun 
stems,  48. 

ratus,  as  pres.  part.,  290.  b. 

ravis,  decl.,  56.  a. 

re-  or  red-  (prefix),  170.  b. 

Receiving,  vbs.  of,  w.  gerundive, 
294.  d. 

Reciprocal  {each  other),  how  ex- 
pressed, 99.  d,  1 96.  /. 

recorder,  with  ace,  219.  b. 

red-,  see  re-. 

Reduplication,  124.  c,  158.  c;  lost  in 
fidi,  etc.,  124.  c.  N.  ;  rule  for 
quantity,  351.  c. 

refert,  with  gen.  or  possessive  adj., 
222 1  other  constr.,  id.  b. 

Reference,  object  of,  218. 

Reference,  pronouns  of,  195.  a  ; 
commonly  omitted,  id.  b  ;  dative 
o^»  -355  S^*^*  °^  specification, 
218.  c. 

Reflexive  pronouns,  98.  2.  a,  b,  102. 
g.  N.  ;  Syntax  of,  196  ;  of  ist  and 
2d  person,  id.  h. 

Reflexive  verbs  (deponent  or  pas- 
sive), 135.  e\  use  of  passive,  iii. 
a;  with  object  ace,  240.  N. 

Refusing,  vbs.  of,  w.  quominus, 
319.  c. 

Regular  verb,  1 21-136. 

Relationship,  nouns  of,  164.  b. 

Relative  adjectives,  w.  gen.,  218, 
with  a,  b. 

Relative  adverbs,  used  correlatively, 
107  ;  used  to  connect  independent 
sentences,  201.  e;  =  pronoun  with 
prep.,  207.  a;  referring  to  loca- 
tive, 201.  /;  used  instead  of  rel. 
pron.,  id.  /.  2,  207.  a\  used  in 
relative  clauses  of  purpose,  317  ; 
of  result,  319;  position,  201.  ^. 

Relative  clauses,  defined,  180.  c;  w. 
relative  ad  vs.,  201.  h.  Syntax, 
316-328;  conditional,  316;  final, 
317,  318;  consecutive,  319;  char- 
acteristic, 320  ;  causal,  321  ;  tem- 
poral, 323-328 ;  rel.  clauses  in 
ind.  disc,  340  ;  position  of  rel. 
clause,  345.  e. 

Relative  pronouns,  decl.,  103  ;  forms 
how  distinguished  from  interroga- 
tive and  indef.,  104.  a  ;  compounds 


of,  105.  Syntax,  198-201  ;  rules 
of  agreement,  19S,  199;  w.  two 
antecedents,  198.  a  ;  rel.  in  agree- 
ment w.  appos.,  etc.,  199;  use  of 
the  antecedent,  200  ;  special  uses 
of  rel.,  201  ;  never  om.  in  Lat., 
201.  a;  pers.  of  verb  agreeing  w., 
204.  a  ;  abl.  of  rel.  after  comp., 
247.  a.  R.  ;  position,  345.  e. 

reliquus,  use,  193;  reliqui,  use, 
203.  a. 

Remembering,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  219; 
w.  inf.,  271. 

Reminding,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  219.  c. 

Removing,  vbs.  of,  w.  abl.,  243.  a. 

[ren],  decl.,  54.  2. 

repetundarum,  220.  a. 

Repeated  action  as  general  condi- 
tion, 309.  b. 

Repraesentdtio,  276.  d.  N.  ;  in  ind. 
disc,  336.  B.  a. 

Requesting,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  330.  2. 

res,  decl.,  72. 

Resisting,    vbs.     of,    constr.,     227, 

319.  d. 

Resolution  of  syllables  in  Prosody, 

357-  • 

Resolving,  verbs  of,  constr.  (subjunc. 

or  inf.),  331.  0^. 
restat,  with  ut,  332.  a. 
restis,  decl.,  56.  b. 
Restriction    in    subjunctive   clause, 

320.  d. 

Result,  clauses  of,  180.  e;  sequence 
of  tenses  in,  287.  c ;  infin.  of,  273. 
g.  Subjunctive  with  relatives  or 
ut,  319  ;  negative  result  with  ut 
non,  etc.,  id.  a,  d.  R. ;  result  clause 
equivalent  to  proviso,  id.  b\  with 
quominus,  id.  c;  with  quin,  id.  d\  of 
characteristic,  320 ;  with  expres- 
sions of  existence  and  non-exis- 
tence, id.  a ;  with  unus  and  s51us, 
id.  b ;  with  comparatives,  id.  c ; 
with  dignus,  etc.,  id.  f.  Subst. 
clauses  of  result  after  facio,  etc., 
332  ;  as  subject,  id.  a  ;  after  quam, 
id.  b',  in  exclamatory  questions, 
id.  c ;  tantum  abest  ut,  id.  d ; 
thought  as  result,  id.  f. 

Result,  nouns  denoting,  163.  c. 

rete,  decl.,  57.  a. 

r§x,  decl.,  46. 


Rhetorical   questions  in  ind.   disc, 

338. 
Rhythm,  development  of,  nature  of, 

355- 
Rhythmical  reading,  359.  r. 

ri-,  adj.  stems  in,  84.  a. 

rivalis,  decl.,  57.  b. 

Rivers,  names  of,  gender,  29.  a. 

ro-  stems,  decl.   II.,  38;  adj.  stems, 

82. 
rogo,  constr.  of,  239.  c  and  R.  ;  w. 

subjunc,  331. 
Roman  method  of  pronunciation,  16. 
Root,  defined,  22,  157;    root  used 

as  stem,  1 58. 
rr-,  as  stem  ending,  48.  c. 
rt-,  stems  in,  decl.,  87.  b. 
ruri,  locative,  62,  258.  d. 
rus,  constr.,  258.  a,  b,  d. 

S  changed  to  r,  1 1 .  «  ;  -s  as  sign  of 

nom.,  32.  b,  38,   44,  72,    85;  -s, 

noun  ending,  decl.  III.,  gend.,  65. 

b;    s   suppressed    in    verb-forms, 

128.  b. 
8-  as  stem  ending,  60.  d -,   of  adjs., 

85.  b,  N. ;  of  comparatives,  86.  a. 
8  as  suffix  of  perfect,  1 24.  b. 
sacer,  comp.,  91.  </. 
saepe,  comp.,  92. 
Salamis,  decl.,  63.  a. 
saluber,  decl.,  84.  a. 
salutem,  240.  d.  N. 
salve,  defective,  144.  /. 
sane  quam,  334.  e. 
sapiens,  decl.,  57.  b. 
satago,  with  gen.,  223.  N. 
satis,    comp.,   92 ;    compounds    of, 

with  dat.,  227.  e  -,   non  satis,  93. 

e;    satis   est    (satis   habeo),  with 

perf.  infin.,  288.  e. 
satur,  genitive  of,  41.  ^;  decl.,  82; 

comp.,  91.  </. 
Saying,  verbs  of,   constr.,  330;    in 

passive,  id.  a,  b,  336. 
Scanning,  359.  b. 

scin,  contracted  form  for  scisne,  13.  c. 
scio,  imperative  of,  269.  e. 
seised,  constr.,  331. 
seit5,  scitote,  imperative  forms,  1 28. 

d,  269.  e. 
-SCO   (inceptive),   verbs    ending    in, 

167.  a. 


scrobs,  decl.,  54.  2. 

se-  or  sed-,  insepar.  prefix,  170.  b. 

se,  reflexive,  decl.,  98.  2.  <^ ;  use,  196 ; 
inter  se,  99.  d,  196./ 

Second  Conjugation,  prin.  parts., 
122.  <:;  paradigm,  p.  76;  verbs  of, 
131  ;  derivation,  166.  b. 

Second  Declension,  nouns,  38-43 ; 
accent  of  gen.  and  voc.  of  nouns 
in  -ius,  40.  b. 

Secondary  accent,  19.  b.  N. 

Secondary  object,  239.  2. 

Secondary  suffixes,  defined,  1 59. 

Secondary  tenses,  285 ;  rule  for  use 
of,  286;  perf.  def.  more  commonly 
secondary,  287.  a  ;  perf.  subj.  in 
clauses  of  result  used  after,  287. 
c;  hist,  pres.,  id.  e;  imperf.  and 
pluperf.  subj.,  id.  /  ^;  present 
used  as  if  secondary,  by  synesis, 
id.  h. 

secundum,  #52.  a, 

seeuris,  decl.,  56.  b,  57.  a. 

secus,  indecl.  noun,  use,  240.  b. 

secus  (adv.),  comp.,  92. 

seeutus  (as  pres.  part.),  290.  b. 

sed-,  see  se-. 

sed  compared  with  verum,  etc.,  1 56.  b. 

sedes,  decl.,  59. 

sedlle,  decl.,  52. 

Selling,  vbs.  of,  252.  d. 

sementis,  decl.,  56.  b,  57.  b. 

Semi-deponents,  136. 

semineei,  defect.,  87,/! 

Semi-vowels,  i  and  v  (u),  4. 

senati,  senatuos,  forms  of  gen.  in 
decl.  IV.,  70. 

senex,  decl.,  60.  r,  61 ;  adj.  masc,  88. 
b\  comparison,  91.  c. 

sens,  as  participle  of  esse,  119.  a. 

Sentence,  defined,  171  ;  simple  or 
compound,  180  (compare  Note, 
p.  124);  incomplete,  206. 

Separation,  dat.  of,  after  comps.  of 
ab,  de,  ex,  and  after  adimo,  229; 
abl.,  243  ;  gen.  for.  abl.,  223,  243./. 

Sequence  of  tenses,  285-287  ;  in  ind. 
disc,  336.  B ;  in  conditional  sen- 
tences, in  ind.  disc,  337.  b. 

sequor,  conj.,  135. 

sera  nocte,  193.  N. 

series,  decl.,  74.  d. 

Service,  adjs.  of,  w.  dat.,  234.  a. 


366 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


TNDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


367 


Service,  dat.  of,  223.  a. 
Serving,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  227. 
servus  (servos),  decl.,  38. 
sestertium,  sestertius,  yil~yi9 »  ^^^w 

written  in  cipher,  3S0. 
seu  (sive),  156.  c,  315.  c. 
Sharing,  adjs.  of,  with  gen.,  218.  a. 
Showing,  verbs  of,  with  two  aces., 

239.  a. 
si,  w.  subj.  of  wish,  267.  /5,  N.  i  ;  si 

and  its  compounds,  use,  304.  </, 

315;    si   non   distinguished   from 

nisi,  315.  a\  si  =  whether,  334.  /; 

miror  si,  T,T,y  r. 
Sibilants,  3. 
sic,    correl.  with    ut,    107,   319.    r.; 

with  si,  304.  b. 
Significant  endings,  161-164. 
-silis,  adj.  ending,  164.  m. 
Silvester,  decl.,  84.  a. 
-Sim,  old  form  of  perf.  subj.,   12S. 

similis,  comparison,  89.  b ;  with  gen. 

and  dat.,  234.  d  and  2. 
Simois,  decl.,  64. 
Simple  sentences,  180. 
simnl  with  abl.,  261.  b. 
simul,  simul  atque  (ac),  324. 
simul  .  .  .  simul,  208.  d. 
sin,  304.  a. 

Singiddria  tantum,  75. 
sino,  constr.,  331.  c. 
-sio,    noun-ending,  163.  b. 
siquis,  decl.,  105.  d. 
-sis-,  dropped  in  perf.,  128.  b. 
sitis,  decl.,  52.  cf.  56.  a. 
Situation  or  direction,  235.  b. 
sive  (seu)  .  .  .  sive,  use,  1 56.  <",  31 5.  c. 
Smell,  verbs  of,  with  ace,  237.  c. 
-80,  verbs  in,  167.  b. 
-so,  old  form  of  fut.  perfect,  128.  e.  3. 
socrus,  gend.,  (39.  a. 
sodes  (si  audes),  13.  c. 
soled,  semi-dep.,  136. 
solitd,  with  comp.,  247.  b. 
solitus  as  pres.  part.  290.  b. 
solus,  decl.,  83 ;  with  relative  clause, 

320.  b. 
Sonants,  2.  a. 
-sor,  see  -tor. 
Soracte,  decl.,  57.  d. 
Source,  expressed  by  abl.,  244. 
-soiia,  noun-ending.  164.  /'.  4 ;  -sorius, 


adj.  ending,  id.  h\  -sorium,  noun- 
ending,  id,  /.  5. 

Sospita,  fem.  adj.  form,  85.  c. 

Sounds,  see  Pronunciation. 

Space,  extent  of,  expressed  by  ace, 
257. 

Sparing,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  227. 

spe,  with  comp.,  247.  b. 

Special  verb-forms,  128. 

species,  decl.,  74.  d. 

Specification,  gen.  of,  with  adjs.,  218. 
c;  ace.  of,  240.  c ;  abl.  of,  253. 

specus,  gend.,  69.  a. 

Spelling,  variations  of,  12. 

spes,  decl.,  72.  n. 

Spirants,  3.  a. 

Spondaic  verse,  362.  a. 

Spondee,  356.  b. 

Stanza  or  Strophe,  361. 

statuo,  constr.,  260.  a ;  w.  inf.  or 
subjunc,  331.  d. 

Statutes,  fut.  imv.  in,  269.  d.  3. 

Stella,  decl.,  35. 

Stems,  defined,  21  ;  classified,  157; 
how  formed  from  root,  23,  159; 
how  found  in  nouns,  32.  a;  a- 
stems,  decl.  I.,  35;  adjs.,  81  ; 
o-stems,  decl.  II.,  38  and  n.  ; 
adjs.,  81  ;  in  decl.  III.,  mute 
stems,  44  ;  liquid-stems,  48 ;  vowel- 
stems,  51  ;  u-stems,  decl.  IV.,  68; 
in  tu-,  71  ;  of  verb,  117.  i ;  pres- 
ent, perfect,  and  supine,  121 ;  perf. 
stem,  124;  supine  stem,  125. 
Tenses  arranged  by  stems,  syn- 
opsis, 127.   t^ 

sto,  w.  ablative,  254.  b. 

strigilis,  decl.,  57.  b. 

strix,  decl.,  54.  2. 

Structure  of  Latin  sentences,  346. 
head-n. 

strues,  decl.  59. 

studeo,  w.  dat.,  227.  e. 

suaded,  w.  dat.,  227. 

sub,  use,  152.  c  \  in  comp.,  w.  dat., 
228  ;  of  time,  259.  b. 

sub-,  in  comp.  w.  adjs.,  93.  r,  170.  c  ; 
w.  verbs,  170.  a,  c.  N. 

subed,  w.  ace,  228.  a. 

Subject,  p.  124  ;  defined,  172;  how 
expressed,  173, 174;  modified,  178; 
vb.  agrees  w.,  204 ;  two  or  more 
subjs.,  205  ;   subj.  omitted,  206 ; 


accusative,  272  ;   in  indirect  dis- 
course, 336  ;  position  of  subject, 

343- 
Subject  clauses   (infin.),  270,  330  ; 

(subjunc),  331.  head-n.,  332.  head- 

n.  and  <z,  d. 

Subjective  genitive,  defined,  213.  i  ; 
use,  214. 

Subjunctive  mood,  108.  b ;  tenses 
wanting  in,  1 10.  a  ;  how  used  and 
translated,  112.  b\  tenses  how 
used,  115.  d.  Classification  of 
uses,  265  (cf.  footnote);  general 
use,  265  ;  hortatory  subj.,  ^66  ; 
optative  subj.,  267  ;  deliberative, 
268  ;  tenses  of  subj.,  283-287  ; 
temporal  clauses,  323  ;  potential 
subj.,  311.  a\  subj.  of  modesty, 
id.  b ;  subj.  in  ind.  disc,  336 ;  in 
informal  ind.  disc,  341  ;  of  inte- 
gral part,  342. 

suboles,  decl.,  59. 

Subordinate  clauses,  defined,  180.^; 
use,  316-328  ;   in  ind.  disc,  336, 

339- 
Subordinate  conjunctions,  154.  b. 

Substance,  gen.  of,  214.  ^  ;  abl.  of, 
244. 

Substantive  clauses,  329-334  ;  na- 
ture and  classes  of,  329  ;  Infin. 
clauses,  330  ;  clauses  of  Purpose, 
331  ;  of  Result,  332  ;  Indie  w. 
quod,  333;  Indirect  Questions, 
334  ;  adj.  w.  subst.  clauses,  189.  V. 

Substantive  use  of  adjs.,  188;  of 
possessive  prons.,  190.  a,  197.  d. 

Substantive  verb  (esse),  172.  N. 

subter,  152.  r  ;  use,  260.  d. 

suetus,  w.  infin.,  273.  b. 

Suffixes,  159  ;  primary,  examples  of, 
160;  significant,  161-164. 

sui,  decl.,  98.  b\  use,  196;  w.  gen. 
of  gerund.,  298.  a. 

sum,  conj.,  119  ;  as  copula,  172.  n.; 
as  substantive  vb.,  id.;  omitted, 
206.  c ;  w.  dat.  of  f)ossession,  231 ; 
position,  344.  Cyj. 

summus  {top  oj),  193. 

sunt  qui,  320.  a. 

suovetaurilia,  168.  a. 

supellex,  decl.,  60.  c. 

super,  152.  <: ;  use,  260.  c\  in  comp., 
170.  a;  in  comp.,  w.  dat.,  228. 


supera,  comp.,  91.  b\  supeii,  id. 

superior,  comparison,  91.  ^. 

Superlative,  in  -rimus,  89.  a ;  of 
adjs.  in  -lis,  id.  b ;  with  maxime, 
id.  d ;  of  eminence,  93.  b  ;  with 
quam,  vel,  or  iinus,  id. ;  with  quis- 
que,  id.  c  ;  denoting  order,  suc- 
cession, 193. 

superstes,  decl.,  87.  a,  b. 

Supine,  noun  of  decl,  IV,,  71.  a; 
use  of,  114,  b\  stem,  121.  c\  for- 
mation, 125.  Former  Supine,  use 
of,  302  ;  Latter,  303  ;  as  abl.  of 
specification,  253.  a. 

supplex,  decl.,  87.  b,  d. 

supplied,  w.  dat.,  227.  e,  3. 

supra,  use  of,  152,  a. 

-sura,  noun-ending,  163.  b. 

Surds,  2,  a  and  3, 

-surio,  vbs.  in,  167.  e. 

-BUS,  phonetic  form  of  -tus,  71; 
noun-ending,  163.  b. 

sus,  decl.,  60.  a,  61. 

suus,  use,  196. 

Swearing,    vbs.   of,   constr.,  238.  c, 

330- /• 
Syllables,  rules  for  division  of,  14  ; 

long  and  short,  18. 

Synaeresis,  347.  c. 

Syncope,  \o.  c. 

Synecdoche,  defined,  see  Glossary. 

Synecdochical  accusative,  240.  c. 

Synesis,  defined,  182.  a\  in  gend. 
and  number,  187.  d\  in  sequence 
of  tenses,  287.  h. 

Synopsis  of  tenses  (amd),  127  ;  of 
impersonal  verbs,  145. 

Syntactic  compounds,  170. 

Syntax,  171-346;  historical  de- 
velopment of,  N.,  p.  124;  outline, 
pp.  124,  125.  Important  rules  of 
Syntax,  pp.  305  ff. 

Syn  taxis  and  parataxis,  p,  124. 

T,  t-(8-),  supine  stem  ending,  125. 
-t,  nouns  in,  gend.,  65  c. 
ta,  primary  sufiix,  160.  c.  2,  162.  b. 
taedet,  impersonal,  146.  b\  constr., 

221.  b,  c. 
Taking  away,  vbs.  of,  229. 
Talent,  value  of,  382. 
talis,  105.^,  106. 
talis  at,  etc.,  319.  R- 


-''^"■"■"'"^ 


368 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


tam,  correl.  with  quam,  107 ;  correl. 
with  ut,  319.  R. 

tamen,    1 56.   i,   k  \    as    correlative, 
id.  /. 

tametsi,  concessive  use,  1 56.  /,  313.^. 

tamquam,    in    conditional    clauses, 
312  ;  with  primary  tenses,  id.  r. 

tandem,  in  questions,  210.  f. 

tanti,  gen.  of  value,  252.  a,  d. 

tanto  following  quantd,  lod.c,  250.  R. 

tantum,  with  subjunctive  of  proviso, 
314- 

tantum  abest  ut,  332.  d. 

tantus,  105.^,  106;  tantus  ut,  319.  r. 

-tas,  -tia,  noun-endings,  163.  e. 

Taste,  verbs  of,  with  ace,  237.  c. 

tat-,  as  stem  ending,  54.  2. 

-te  (enclitic),  99./. 

Teaching,  vbs.  of  (two  aces.),  239.  c. 

tego,  conj.,  p.  78. 

Telling,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  272,  330, 
B.  I. 

Temporal  clauses,  defined,  180.  r, 
322-328  ;  as  protasis,  322  ;  two 
uses,  323  ;  w.  postquam,  etc.,  324  ; 
w.  cum,  325  ;  w.  antequam  and 
priusquam,  327  ;  w.  dum,  d5nec, 
quoad,  32S ;  replaced  by  abl.  ab- 
solute, 255.  d. 

Temporal  numerals,  97.  b. 

tempus  est  abire,  298.  n. 

Tendency,  adjs.  denoting,  164.  /. 

Tenses,  \c&.  c  \  of  passive  voice, 
III;  of  participles,  113;  classifi- 
cation, meaning  and  use,  115  ;  of 
the  ind.,  id.  a-<  ;  of  the  subj.,  id. 
d\  endings,  118;  synopsis  of, 
127  ;  of  ind.,  264.  a. 

Tenses,  Syntax,  276-288;  Present 
tense,  276;  Imperfect,  277  ;  Fu- 
ture, 278  ;  of  Completed  action, 
279-281  ;  Epistolary  tenses,  282  ; 
of  subjunctive,  283-285;  sequence 
of,  285-2S7  ;  tenses  of  the  infini- 
tive, 288  ;  tense  emphatic,  344.  d. 
3 ;  tenses  of  inf.  in  ind.  disc, 
336.  a ;  tenses  of  subj.  in  ind. 
d^c.,  336.  b  ;  affected  by  reprae- 
sentdtio,  id.  a ;  in  condition  in  ind. 
disc,  337. 

tenus^  constr.,  w.  gen.,  223.  ^ ;  w.  abl., 
260.  e  ;  position,  263.  N.,  345.  a. 

-ter,  adv.  ending,  148.  ^,  c. 


teres,  decl.,  %t.  a  ;  comp.,  91.  d. 
Terminations    of    nouns,    34 ;     of 

verbs,  118.     See  Endings, 
-temus,  as  adj.  ending,  164.  e. 
terra  marique,  258.  d. 
terrester,  dec!.,  84.  a. 
Tetrameter,  Iambic,  366.  a. 
Than,  how  expressed,  247. 
The  as  correlative,  106.  c. 
Thesis  and  Arsis,  358. 
Thinking,  vbs.  of,  constr.  with  ace 

and  inf.,  272,  330.  B.  i. 
Third  conjugation,  of   verbs,  prin. 
parts,  122.  c\  paradigm,  p.  78;  in 
-16,  paradigm,  p.  80 ;  derivation  of 
vbs,  in  -uo,  166.  c. 
Third  declension,  of  nouns,  44-67  ; 
mute  stems,  44-47  ;  liquid-stems, 
48-50;    vowel-stems,  51-59;  case 
forms,  56;  peculiar  forms,  60,61 ; 
Greek  nouns,  63,  64 ;  rules  of  gen- 
der, 65. 
Though,  see  Although. 
Thought,  considered  as  result,  332./. 
Threatening,  vbs.  of,  227,  330./. 
-tia  (ties),  noun-ending,  163.  e. 
-ticus,  adj.  ending,  164.  g. 
tigris,  decl.,  64. 
-tilis,  adj.  ending,  164.  w. 
-tim,  adverbs  in,  56.  a.  3. 
Time  (see  Temporal  Clauses),  264. 

a\  284. 
Time,  ad  vs.  of,  149,  b. 
Time,  duration  of,  256  and  b\  time 
when,  256;  corresponding  to  Eng. 
place,  259.  a-,  time  during  or  with- 
in which,  w.   ordinal,  id.  c ;  dis- 
tance of  time,  id.  d;  abl.  abs.  to 
denote  time,  255.  and  d.  i. 
Time,  mode  of  reckoning,  327  ff. 
timed,  w.  dat.,  or  ace,  227.  c\  with 

subjunctive,  331. y". 
-timas,  adj.  ending,  164.  e. 
-tio,  noun-ending,  160.  b,  163.  b. 
-tio  (-sio),  -tura,  -tus  (tiitis),  noun- 
endings,  163.  b. 
-tium,  noun-ending,  163./. 
-tivus,  verbal  adj.  ending,  164.  /. 
-to,  -ito,  frequent  verbs  in,  167.  b. 
To  (so  as  to),  319.  d.  R. 
Too  .  .  .  to,  320.  c.  N. 
-tor  (-sor),  -trix,  nouns  of  agency  in, 
162.  a;  used  as  adjs., 88.  c,  iSS.d. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


369 


-toria,  noun-ending,  164.  /.  4. 

-torium,  noun-ending,  160.  b;  164.  i.  5. 

-tortus,  adj.  ending,  160.  ^;  as  noun- 
ending,  164.  h. 

tot,  use,  106  and  a. 

totidem,  use,  106.  a. 

totus,  decl.,  83;  nouns  w.,  in  abl. 
without  prep,  {place  where),  258. 
/.  2. 

Towns,  names  of,  gend.,  29.  b,  39.  a  ; 
names  of  towns  in  -e,  decl.,  57.  d; 
locative  of,  258.  c.  2;  as  place 
from  which,  id.  a\  as  place  to 
which,  258.  b. 

traicio,  constr.,  239.  b.  R.  ;  traiectus 
lora,  id. 

trans,  152.  a;  comps.  of,  w.  ace, 
237.  d;  w.  two  aces.,  239.  b  and  r. 

Transitive  adjectives,  218. 

Transitive  verbs,  175.  b,  177;  abso- 
lute use,  175.  b.  N.  2;  how  trans- 
lated, 177.  c,  w.  dat.,  255. 

Transposition  of  vowel  and  liquid, 
9.  d,  1 24.  a.  N. ;  of  consonants, 
II,  d. 

Trees,  names  of,  gend.,  29.  b. 

tres,  decl.,  94.  c. 

tri-,  stem  ending  of  nouns,  51.  ^,  54. 
I ;  of  adjs.,  84.  a. 

Tribe,  abl.  of,  244.  b.  N. 

Tribrach,  356.  a. 

tnbulis,  decl.,  57.  a.  2. 

tribus,  gend.,  69.  a;  dec!.,  70  d. 

tndens,  decl.,  57.  b. 

tnremis,  decl.,  57.  b. 

-tris,  adj.  ending,  164.  e. 

tnumphd,  w.  abl.,  245.  a.  2. 

-trix,  see  -tor. 

Trochaic  verse,  360. 

Trochee,  356.  a. 

-trum,  noun-ending,  163.V. 

Trusting,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  227. 

til,  decl.,  98.  I  (see  tiite,  tutimet). 

-tii,  -su,  supine  endings,  114.  b. 

-tudo,  -tus,  noun-endings,  163.  e. 

tuli  (tetuli),  139;  quantity,  351.  b. 
Ex. 

-turn,  -sum,  supine  endings,  114.  b. 

turn,  correl.  w.  cum,  107,  156  h. 

turn  .  .  .  tum,  208.  d. 

-tiira,  -tus,  noun-ending,  163.  b. 

-turio,  vbs.  in,  167.  t. 

turns,  decl.,  52  (cf.  56.  b). 


-tumus,  adj.  ending,  164.  e. 
-tus,  adj.  ending,  164./;  noun-end- 
ing, 71,  163.  e. 
tussis,  decl.,  56.  a.  ^^ 

tute,  99.  /;  tutimet,  99.  /. 
Two  accusatives,  239. 
Two  datives,  233.  a. 

U  (v),  as  consonant,  4 ;  not  to  fol- 
low u  or  V,  7. 

u-stems,  of  nouns,  decl.  III.,  60.  a, 
61;  decl.  IV.,  68;  of  verbs,  166. 
a.  3,  c. 

uber,  decl.,  85.  b,  87.  e. 

ubi,  in  temporal  clauses,  322,  324. 

ubiubi,  105.  b. 

-ubus,  in  dat.  and  abl.  pi.,  decl.  IV., 
!       70.  d. 

-uis  (uos),  in  gen.,  decl.  IV.,  70.  a. 

-iilis,  adj.  ending,  164.  d. 

iillus,  decl.,  ^y^  use,  105.  h,  202.  ^, 

I  ;  C. 

ulterior,  comparison,  91.  a. 
I    iiltra,  i  52.  ^ ;  following  noun,  263.  N. 
-ulus,    diminutive    ending,    164.    a; 

verbal  adj.  ending,  id.  /. 
-um  for  -arum,  36.  d;  for  -drum,  40. 

e;   -um   in   gen.    pi.    of   personal 

prons.,  194.  b;  -um  for  -ium,  decl. 

III.,  59;  in  gen.  pi.  of  adjs.,  87. 

</;  for  -uum,  decl.  IV.,  70.  c. 
Undertaking,  vbs.  of,  w,  gerundive, 

294.  d. 
Unorganized  forms  of   expression, 

p.  124. 
unquam,  use,  T05.  h. 
fint-,  stem  ending,  63.  e. 
anus,  decl.,  83;  meaning,  94.  a,  95.  b. 
Onus  qui,  w.  subj.,  320.  b. 
unus  quisque,  decl.,  105.  e-,  use,  202. 

d. 
uo,  suffix,  see  va. 
-u6,  vbs.  in,  166.  c. 
-uos,  see  -uis. 
-ur,  nouns  in,  65.  c. 
urbs,  decl.,  54;    use  in  relations  of 

place,  258.  b.  N.  3. 
Urging,  vbs.  of,  with  ut,  331. 
-Olio,    desiderative    verbs    in.      See 

-turio. 
-umus,  adj.  ending,  164.  e. 
-uriis,  f ut.  part,  in,  113.  b,  293 ;  w. 

fui,  293.  c,  308.  d\  in  ind.  ques- 


370 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


371 


tions,  334.  a ;  -urus  fuisse,  in  ind. 

disc,  337.  b. 
-us,  nom.  ending,  decl.  II.,  38,  39; 

-us  for  -er  in  Gr.  nouns,  decl.  II., 

43-  f^\  gend.,  65.  c\  decl.  IV., 68  ; 

gend.,  69;  neut.  ending,  163.  a. 
-us,  Gr.  nom.  ending,  63.  e. 
Use,  adjs.  of,  constr.,  234.  b. 
usquam,  use,  105.  h. 
usque,  w.  ace,  261.  a. 
usus  {need),  w.  abl.,  243.  e. 
ut  (uti),  correlative  w.  ita,  sic,  107 ; 

to  denote  concession,  266.  c,  313. 

a\  w.   optative  subjunc,  267.  b; 

in  clauses  of  purp.,  317  ;  of  result, 

319;  ut  ne,  id.  a;    ut  non,  etc., 

319.  d.  R.  ;  ut  temporal,  322,324; 
verbs  followed  by  clauses  w.  ut, 
331,  332;  omission  after  certain 
verbs,  331.  /^  R.,  i-  N.  i  and  2; 
w.  verbs  of  fearing,  331.  y^;  used 
elliptically  in  exclamations,  332.  c. 

ut,  utpote,  quippe,  w.  relative  clause, 

320.  <r.  N.  I;  w.  cum,  326.  N. 
ut  primum,  324. 

ut  semjBl,  324. 

uter,  interrog,  andindef.pron.,  104.^. 

uter,  decl.,  51.  b,  54.  i. 

ubCrque,  form  and  decl.,  105.  e-,  use, 

202.  d;  constr.  in  agreement  and 

as  partitive,  216.  d. 
utervis,  use,  202.  c. 
uti,  utinam,  w.  subj.  of  wish,  267.  b. 
utiiis,  w.  dat.  of  gerund,  etc.,  299. 

foot-n. 
utpote  qui,  320.  e.  N. 
utor,  etc.,  w.  abl.,  249;   gerundive 

use  of,  294.  c.  N.,  296.  R. 
utrum  .  .  .  an,  2 1 1  and  d. 
utsi,  constr.,  312  and  R. 
-utus,  adj.  ending,  164./". 
utut,  105.  b. 
-uus,  rare  nom.   ending,  decl.   IV., 

70.  b\  verbal  adj.  ending,  164.  /. 

V  (u),  p.  4;  4,  7 ;  omitted,  11.  ^;  in 
tenuis,  16.  n.  ;  sufl&x  of  perf.,  124. 
a  ;  suppressed  in  perf.,  128.  a;  v 
often  om.  in  perf.  of  eo  and  its 
comps.,  141.   b\  V  by  synaeresis, 

347-' <^- 
va,  primary  suffix,  160.  c.  2. 

vafer,  comp.,  91.  </. 


valde,  use,  93.  d. 

Value,  gen.  of  indefinite,  252.  a. 

Value,  measures  of,  377-380. 

Variable  nouns,  78,  79  (cf.  74.  b). 

Variations,  see  Phonetic  Variations 
and  Inherited  Differences. 

Variations  of  Spelling,  12. 

vas,  decl.,  60.  d. 

vates,  decl.,  59. 

-ve,  vel,  use,  156.  c,  212.  R. 

vel  (see  -ve),  w.  superl.,  93.  b. 

velim,  vellem,  subj.  of  modesty,  311. 
b. 

velim,  vellem,  w.  subjunc.  (=opt.), 
267.  c  (=  imv.),  269.  g. 

vellem,  see  velim. 

veluti,  velutsi,  312. 

veneo  (venum  eo),  258.  b.  R. 

venerat  =  aderat,  279.  e. 

V^ERBS,  Etymology.  Verb,  defined, 
introd.  ;  inflection,  108-1 10  ;  noun 
and  adj.  forms  of,  109;  signifi- 
cation, of  forms,  111-115;  per- 
sonal endings,  116;  forms  of  the 
verb,  117,  118  (note  on  origin  and 
hist,  of  vb. -forms,  p.  95);  table 
of  endings,  118;  the  three  stems, 
121  ;  regular  verbs,  122-136;  the 
four  conjugations,  122  and  a  ; 
prin.  parts  of,  122.  b,  c;  mixed 
verbs,  id.  d\  deponents,  135; 
semi-deponents,  136;  irregular 
verbs,  137-142;  defective,  143, 
144;  impersonal,  145,  146;  peri- 
phrastic forms,  147;  compound 
verbs,  170;  vowels  in  comp.  verbs, 
170.  a.  N.  Derivation  of  verbs, 
165-167. 

Verbs,  Syntax.  Subject  implied 
in  ending,  174.  2;  rules  of  agree- 
ment, 204-206;  verb  omitted, 
206.  c,  rules  of  Syntax,  264-342. 
Cases  w.  vbs.,  see  under  Accusa- 
tive, etc.  Position  of  verb,  343, 
344,  d,J.  (See  under  the  names  of 
the  Moods,  etc.) 

Verba  sentiendi  et  decldrandt,  272, 
330,  336;  passive  use  of,  272.  r. 
330,  a-c ;  in  poets  and  later  writ- 
ers, id.  d. 

Verbal  nouns  with  dat.,  227.  d. 

Verbal  nouns  and  adjs.  with  reflex- 
ive, 196.  d. 


Verbal  adjectives,  164.  /-/;  in  -ax, 
with  gen.,  218.  b. 

Verbal  roots,  157.  i. 

vereor,  with  gen.,  223.  b.  i  \  w.  sub- 
junc, 331./ 

veritus,  as  pres.  part.,  290.  b. 

vero,  156.  b,  k;  in  answers,  212.  «; 
position  of,  345.  b. 

Verse,  359. 

Versification,    359-362 ;     forms    of 
verse,  360. 

versus,  position  of,  345.  a. 

verto,  constr.,  252.  c. 

veru,  gend.,  69.  b;  decl.,  70.  d. 

verum  or  vero,  use,  1 56.  b,  k. 

vescor,    with   abl.,    249 ;  gerundive, 
294.  c.  N.,  296.  R. 

vesper,  decl.,  \\.  b. 

vesperi  (loc),  41.  b,  258.  d. 

vester,  98.  3. 

vestri  as  obj.  gen.,  99.  c,  194.  b. 

vestrum  as  part,  gen.,  99.  ^,194.  ^,cf.N. 

veto,  w.  ace  and  inf.,  271.  b,  330.  2, 
and  b.  2. 

vetus,  decl.,  85.  b,  87.  e ;  compari- 
son, 89.  a,  91.  d. 

vicem,  adverbial  use  of,  240.  b. 

video  ut,  331, 

videor,  with  dat.,  232.  c. 

vin  (visne),  13.  c. 

vir,  decl.,  38,  41.  b. 

virgo,  decl.,  49. 

virus,  gender  of,  39.  b. 

vis,  stem,  54.  2  ;  decl.,  61. 

viscera,  79.  c. 

viso,  167.  e,  N. 

vocalis,  decl.,  57.  b. 

Vocative,  31.  e\  form,  33.  a\  in  -i 
of  nouns  in  -ius,  decl.  II.,  40.  c,  d  \ 
of  adjs.  in  -ius,  81.  a;  of  Greek 
nouns,  43.  b.     Syntax,  241. 

Voices,  108.  a,  in  ;  middle  voice, 
id.  a,  135.  e. 

V0I6,  and  comps.,  conj.,  138;  w.  in- 
fin.,  271  and  n.  ;  part,  of,  as  dat. 
of  reference,  235.  c\  w.  perf.  part., 
288.  d,  292.  d.  N.  ;  w.  subj.  or  inf., 
331.  ^  and  N. 

volucer,  decl.,  84.  a. 

volucris,  decl.,  59. 


-volus,  adj.  in,  comparison,  89.  c. 

vos,  98.  I. 

voster,  etc.,  see  vester. 

voti  danmatus,  220.  a. 

Vowels,  I  ;  long  and  short,  how 
marked,  5  ;  inherited  differences 
in,  9;  contraction,  10.  ^  ;  syncope, 
id.  c\  insertion,  id.  d\  dissimila- 
tion, \\.d\  pronunciation,  16,  17  ; 
long  and  short,"  18;  quantity  of 
final  vowels  in  case  endings,  33.  g ; 
vowel  modified  in  noun-stems, 
decl.  III.,  45;  lengthened  in 
root,  1 24.  d,  1 58.  b.  and  n. 

Vowel-changes,  10. 

Vowel-sufiixes  (primary),  160.  c.  i. 

Vowel-stems,  decl.  III.,  51-59. 

vulgus  (volgus),  gend.,  39.  b. 

-vus,  verbal  adj.  ending,  164./. 

W,  not  in  Latin  alphabet,  p.  4. 

Want,  words  of,  with  abl.  243;  with 
gen.,  223,  243./. 

Way  by  which  (abl.),  258.  g. 

Weight,  measures  of,  382. 

Whole,  gen.  of,  216;  numbers  ex- 
pressing the  whole,  216.  e. 

Wills,  fut.  imv.  in,  269.  d.  3. 

Winds,  gender  of  names  of,  29. 

Wish,  expressed  by  subj.,  267  ;  as  a 
condition,  y.o.b\  wish  in  informal 
ind.  disc,  341.  b. 

Wishing,  verbs  of,  with  inf.,  288.  d 
(cf.  271.  a)  ;  with  subst.  clause  of 
purp.,  317,  331.  b  ;  with  ace  and 
infin.,  330.  3,  331.  b. 

Without,  with  verbal  noun,  292.  N. 
I. 

Women,  names  of,  80.  c. 

Words,  formation  of,  157-170  ;  ar- 
rangement of,  343-346. 

X,  nom.  ending,  44  ;  gend.,  65.  b. 

-y,  noun-ending,  gend.,  65.  c. 
Year,  p.  327 ;  months  of,  327,  328 ; 

date,  259.  e,  376. 
Yes  in  Lat.,  212. 
-ys,  nom.  ending,  63.  g,  46  ;  gend., 

65.  b ;  quantity,  348.  9. 


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